This is a collection of papers presented to the Symposium "Australian History Wars: from White Australian, Aboriginal and Asian (NESB) Point of Views", held at the National Museum of Ethnology Osaka, as a part of the annual National Convention of the Australian Studies Association of Japan on the 12th of June in 2004. The idea of this symposium was inspired by the book, 'The History Wars', by Professor Stewart Macintyre, Melbourne University, written in 2003, with Anna Clark. Since the 1980s, the so-called "Black Armband Histories" began to appear in Australia, and have challenged traditional orthodox Australian histories which tended to praise the developments of white Australian settler colonies and the Commonwealth of Australia, while paying little attention to the historical destruction of Aboriginal societies in Australia. Black Armband Histories are written mainly by white Australians who have realized the devastating effects of white Australian colonial developments over Aboriginal Australians. These writings began to show the dark side of Australian History, and tried to persuade white Australians to apologise and compensate for what they have done to Australian Aboriginal people during the past two centuries. However, in the 1990s, Prime Minister Howard began to challenge the legitimacy of the Black Armband Histories. This was because he felt uneasy about the main assumptions developed in the Black Armband Histories which, he thought, tend to deny the historically great efforts by white Australians to develop Australia. He also does not like the Black Armband Histories because they have been encouraged by the former Prime Minister Keating, who wanted to change Australia's national identity from a colonial and monarchical, mono-cultural dependent identity to a more independent, multicultural and republican postcolonial national identity. The former republican PM Mr. Keating, on the one hand, was heavily dependent on Manning Clark's critical historical accounts of Australian history. PM Howard, on the other hand, has been heavily reliant on Geoffrey Blainey's more orthodox accounts. In Macintyre's book, only conflicts between white settlers' history and Aboriginal history are dealt with extensively. Therefore, the presentors decided to add Asian NESB peoples' point of views to the History Wars. Professor Fujikawa presented a paper from a white Australian point of view, and Professor Matsuyama from an Aboriginal point of view, Associate Professor Murakami from mainly Chinese and Japanese point of views, and Professor Sekine delivered a paper based on the critical arguments of the Post WWII Australian history of immigration policies and multiculturalism provided by the former Lebanese refugee, Professor Ghassan Hage of Sydney University. We hope this symposium will give guidance to Japanese scholars of Australian Studies to participate into the History Wars in Australia.

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In many ways, Australia is at the crossroads. Since his election to the office in March 1996, Prime Minister John Howard has, incrementally but steadily, transformed Australia into something very much to his liking. Since the mid 1960s, Australia has experienced considerable degrees of change. Multiculturalism, as a concept and practice, enriched Australians' quality of life. Reconciliation with indigenous people through non-Aboriginals' commitment and apology gained a certain momentum. In a sphere of foreign policy, the focus was shifted from the US towards North and Southeast Asia. These changes had enjoyed bi-partisan (multi-partisan if the Australian Democrats are included) support. There had been a tacit agreement not to make "race" an election issue. All these advances, which had made Australia more generous and tolerant and thus more likeable, attractive and respectable to the eyes of outside world, especially to those of its close neighbours in the Asia-Pacific region, are now in jeopardy as a result of the Howard government's policies. In terms of Australia's foreign policy, there are two tendencies. One is to place the bilateral relationship with "the Great and Powerful Friends", the UK and the USA, as paramount. Another tendency is to pursue more independent foreign policy as a middle power through multilateral diplomacy. In recent times, such an independent foreign policy manifests itself as "Engagement with Asia". Since the late 1960s, Australia has, while balancing between two tendencies, more or less pursued the latter course with a considerable degree of success. Nevertheless, Howard appears to have shifted that balance towards close, almost indistinguishable, alignment with the US. Australia's enthusiastic support for and participation in the Bush administration's invasion of Iraq and finalising the Free Trade Agreement with the USA are two very clear and recent examples. This paper argues that Howard is doing this not because of any perceived national interests but rather because of his ideological commitment to the US alliance and desire to score domestic political points against his political opponents.

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The Discovering Democracy Program was introduced into the Australian compulsory school curriculum nationwide as a civics and citizenship education program at the end of the 1990s. It was established on the basis of a strong federal government initiative, in spite of each state and territory being constitutionally responsible for education. How should the meaning of citizenship be taught in school with the aim of preparing future active citizens? This has been an important question in the debate on citizenship policy in Australia since the early 90s. Its policy consequence is the Discovering Democracy Program. It should be noted that some elements peculiar to Australian contexts, especially the approaching Centenary Federation and the republic debate, provided an impetus for public discussion on citizenship and influenced the nature of citizenship education. For this reason, perhaps, the redefinition of national self-image, or in other words, the (re)invention of a national civic identity for multicultural Australia, has been emphasised as the object of citizenship education, rather than any attempt to promote active participation in civic life. Another related distinctive feature is that policy makers identified 'Australian history' as an essential vehicle for education in citizenship, the 'heritage' approach to citizenship which is clearly reflected in the Discovering Democracy materials. The purpose of this paper is to examine critically the meaning and effect of citizenship education in Australia with attention to representation of cultural diversity. Firstly I will shed light on the background to and process of formulation of the citizenship education policy with a focus on its political intention and implications. I will then analyse how and to what extent cultural diversity is reflected in the concept of citizenship and how multicultural Australia is narrated in the content of the curricular materials developed by the Curriculum Corporation.

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