Of late, the term “boundary crossing,” i.e., conducting learning activities beyond the boundaries of organizations and workplaces, such as workshops and volunteer activities, has been drawing the attention of practitioners and researchers. Boundary crossing provides opportunities to acquire knowledge and skill unavailable at routine workplaces. It also facilitates obtaining new perspectives and thoughts. However, the concept of boundary crossing is not matured and lacks a firm consensus among researchers as they perceive the term “boundary” differently. While such differences are allowed, we should nonetheless clarify and recognize the difference between the perspectives on boundary crossing for developing the boundary crossing theory. Our review of the literature on boundary crossing identified two perspectives. Some works focus on the physical or institutional boundary between organizations, workplaces, and so on, while others focus on the heterogeneity of situation/context between workplaces. Furthermore, in addition to heterogeneity, the homogeneity of context shared by people engaged in boundary crossing facilitates their learning. Both heterogeneity and homogeneity of context contribute toward learning in different manners.

This research aims to redefine and develop a measurement of internship as a form of career exploration. To achieve this purpose, we conducted three studies.

In study 1, a text analysis was performed to confirm the effects of recent internship experiences. We specifically asked university students （n = 1,179） to answer in free-form format questions about “changes that were made within yourself by participating in the internship” and quantitatively analyzed the contents by using KH Coder.

In study 2, we developed a measurement scale based on the results of the text analysis. From the results of exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis （n = 3,826）, five effects were extracted namely“ a clearer career vision,”“ a broadened career vision,”“ recognition of human network,”“ motivation to work,” and“ an enhanced self-understanding.” We also developed a 20-item “internship effect measurement scale” to measure these five effects.

In study 3, two analyses were conducted to verify the developed scale’s reliability, validity, and effectiveness. The first is a correlation analysis with the existing scale. From the results of this analysis, a significant correlation was confirmed between the internship measurement scale and career exploration scale, and the reliability and validity of the scale were confirmed. The second is the verification of the scale’s effectiveness by the t-test within the results of job-hunting. From this analysis, it was confirmed that there was a significant difference in the five effects of internship within the groups with and without job offers, and groups satisfied or dissatisfied with job offers.

There are four major contributions to this research. The first is to clarify the “effects” of the recent internship experience. The most distinctive feature is the positive correlation （r = .42） between “a clearer career vision” that narrows down one’s career vision and “a broadened career vision” that expands the possibility of one’s career. It was confirmed that both effects, which may be inconsistent, could be established simultaneously. In other words, the internship experience has various effects, such as “expanding while narrowing down” or “narrowing down while expanding” the future career.

Second, we developed an“ internship effect measurement scale” that measures the internship’s five effects. Various scales related to career exploration have been developed, but very few scales have been developed for internships. The features of this scale are that （1） the effects felt by university students from recent internship programs are directly reflected in the scale, （2） the correlation with the existing career exploration scale has been confirmed, and （3） the scale’s effectiveness was confirmed in“ with or without job offer” and“ with or without satisfaction with job offer”.

Third, we showed that each of the five effects of the internship affects outcome variables differently. From the results of the t-test, the factors that have a significant difference in “with or without job offer” and“ with or without satisfaction with job offer” are different. This result suggests that the factors making a difference in“ with or without job offer” and“ with or without satisfaction with job offer” are different. In other words, these five internship effects have different roles and influences on job-hunting results.

The fourth is the contribution to the theoretical aspect. Internships are considered a form of career exploration behavior, and we defined internship as “a form of career exploration with work experience conducted in adolescence.” In addition, career exploration is considered a concept consisting of two aspects, “self-search” and “environmental search.” However, the results of this research suggested that “recognition of human network” and “motivation to work” may be unique effects of the internship experience.

The population structure of Japan has a declining working-age population （15–64 years）. In this environment, personnel management of middle-aged to older workers is ever more important. For middle-aged to older workers, the age limit system for managerial personnel and reemployment after retirement are important personnel management systems, which can lead to career turning points. Therefore, to consider the measures to take in response to the merits and demerits of both policies, this research will examine the current condition of middle-aged to older workers who are affected by either of the policies instead of the personnel management situation. Specifically, the purpose of the research is to examine the current condition and determinants of work engagement among individuals affected by the age limit system for managerial personnel and reemployment after retirement.

A study was conducted using an Internet survey through Macromill, Inc. with questionnaires targeted at middle-aged to older workers （40 to 64 years）, including those affected by the age limit system for managerial personnel and reemployment after retirement.

The sample categories are as follows: 452 were affected by the age limit system for managerial personnel, 528 were affected by reemployment after retirement, and 3351 were not affected by either policy. The main results of the analysis are discussed below:

1. The work engagement scores of those affected by the age limit system for managerial personnel and reemployment after retirement were not lower than those who were not affected by either policy.

2. In those who were not affected by either of the policies, the psychological contract had a positive influence on work engagement. On the other hand, no significant positive influence were observed among those affected by the age limit system for managerial personnel and reemployment after retirement.

3. In those affected by the age limit system for managerial personnel and reemployment after retirement, servant leadership and psychological safety had a positive influence on work engagement.

4. In all categories, job crafting and knowledge broking had a positive influence on work engagement.

Hence, the strengths and weaknesses of personnel management related to servant leadership, psychological safety, job crafting and knowledge broking in the workplace are key issues to improve work engagement.

Conventional career education has only slight application to younger-generation workers who choose to be a “part-timer” as their desired career path after completion of their final schooling. This study was conducted to ascertain their hierarchical, actual state of mind. Using original survey data （N=247）, we specifically examined the internal factors and the conceptual structure of the mentality of persons who desire to become a“ part-timer for the time being,” including their state of consciousness. An examination was conducted using structural equation modeling in which the“ parttimer for the time being” intervened between personal factors and consciousness about working. The results presented the following insights.

Losing self-confidence, being in a moratorium, and vague understanding underlie the “part-timer for the time being” consciousness by which a person feels unable to express their will of “what I want to do.” They relate the negativity toward working.

Role models are the key to raising feelings of ownership of one’s career and avoiding ambiguous career choices.

Vaguely continuing a part-timer lifestyle that lacks a sense of reality can negatively affect the realization of career development. If young people overcome harsh realities by taking a temporarily ambiguous stance and attitude with a sense of reality that includes understanding of their situation and circumstances, then the experience might have positive effects on how they envision their career.

The purpose of this paper is to review the study of promotion, mainly in the Japanese public sector, from three points of view

1 ．the key points in observing promotion structure and the basic characteristics of promotion structure in national and local governments,

2．the main research approaches, and

3．subjects, data, and methods.

The contribution of this paper is twofold. First, this paper is, as far as can be seen, the first comprehensive review paper on public sector promotion research. Secondly, whereas conventional reviews of promotion research focusing on the private sector have been conducted mainly from an economics or business administration perspective, this paper broadly discusses the perspectives from both theoretical and empirical perspectives from different disciplines such as economics, business administration, public administration, and political science, organizing three approaches.

In line with the three objectives mentioned earlier, this paper is structured as followed: First, we summarize what has been pointed out about the reality of promotion in the national and local governments within the Japanese public sector, along the following five lines. Namely

1．the intensity of track-by-track management at the entry-level,

2．the speed of promotion,

3．how the disparities in promotion within a given personnel group are made,

4．selection through horizontal movement without promotion, and

5．in relation to politics.

Next, three approaches to promotion research in the public sector have been described: the functional approach, the normative approach, and the power approach. The functional approach is mainly adopted by economists and considers that the promotion structure is rationally designed for the organization’s purpose and work performance. It is also believed that the organizational environment and technical conditions create differences in the abilities and skills needed by the organization and the promotion structure that develops them. The abilities and skills here are assumed to be objectively ascertainable, at least in theory, and to have a single entity.

The normative approach is a sociological approach that focuses on the unique role of norms not dissolved by environmental conditions when considering promotion. It is critical of overly rational explanations of management and emphasizes that organizations are embedded in their social, cultural, and historical contexts. Capability is seen as socially constructed within those particular contexts. This is the so-called “social construction theory of ability.”

The power approach focuses on the principal nature of government as an organization and is concerned with how power struggles between actors manifest themselves in promotion mechanisms. Many political scientists and public administration scholars have adopted this approach, with the theme of political-government relations （the relationship between politicians and administrators） receiving particular attention.

Thirdly, subjects, data, and methods that previous studies have addressed are discussed. As for the research subjects, interest in the subject has expanded in recent years to include technical officials and non-elite employees. In recent years, the number of studies relying on primary data such as official documents has increased. Although the basic research method is to draw a career tree, in recent years, new methods such as Bayesian estimation and QCA have been applied to more rigorously clarify the structure of promotion and analyze the causes and consequences of the structure.

We conclude with a discussion of future challenges for promotion research in the public sector. There are three main challenges: the development of databases, the expansion of research subjects, and the refinement of each research approach.

The purpose of this paper is to review the conditions necessary for the elder people in Japan to gain a sense of meaningful life through paid employment. The paper also summarizes the key issues that needs clarification with a particular focus on the following three: corporate human resource management, employment needs for elders, and successful aging.

First, I will confirm that in a typical corporate human resource management system, elderly workers extended with non-regular appointment are managed within a welfare-type employment, with no rating or raises in salaries. However, in order to increase elderly employment as effective work resource, it is necessary to revisit corporate human resource management so that it provides appropriate remuneration （not limited to salaries, but also opportunities for obtaining intrinsic rewards and sense of accomplishment） through work. Second, I will focus on elders’ employment needs and their sense of meaningful life, exploring the possibility that welfare-type human resource management may hinder elders’ attainment of sense of meaningful life through work. I will clarify differences in elders’ sense of meaningful life and their employment needs. Third, I will examine the applicability of theoretical arguments of successful aging to the issues of job search behaviors for the elderly. I will focus on the notion of "Selective Optimization with Compensation" and explore possibilities of using the notions of "selection", "optimization", and "compensation" to understanding elders’ positive attitudes toward work and motivation for employment. In the concluding section, I will review the points that have been overlooked in the past research. Although there are a number of discussions based on the viewpoints of corporate human resource management, the perspectives of elders are often times underestimated, despite the fact they are the main players. Elders are often discussed as one monolithic group of people, even though they are individuals with diverse health, financial, and many other conditions and needs. There are few studies focusing on elderly people who are looking for employment. Through these, key issues that need to be studied in future research will be clarified.