This study reveals changes in awareness of the following 15 words through internet surveys: ‘Olympics’, ‘Paralympics’, ‘Deaflympics’, ‘Special Olympics’, ‘wheelchair tennis’, ‘wheelchair basketball’, ‘boccia’, ‘goalball’, ‘Para badminton’, ‘classifier’, ‘guide runner’, ‘Olympic and Paralympic legacy’, ‘Paralympic education’, ‘inclusive society’ and ‘reasonable accommodation’. The four words ‘Olympic and Paralympic legacy’, ‘Paralympic education’, ‘inclusive society’ and ‘reasonable accommodation’ were included from the 2018 survey. The survey was conducted six times: in 2014, 2016, 2018, 2019, 2020 and 2021. The number of people surveyed each time was 2,066.

The results showed that awareness of the words ‘Olympics’ and ‘Paralympics’ had been high since the first survey in 2014. Over 95% people were aware of these two words and this tendency remained unchanged until the 2021 survey. Awareness of ‘wheelchair basketball’ and ‘wheelchair tennis’ was high at over 60% since the 2014 survey, with a gradual increase in awareness by 2021. ‘Boccia’, ‘goalball’, ‘Para badminton’ and ‘guide runner’ increased by more than 10 percentage points between the 2014 and 2021 surveys. In particular, ‘boccia’ had increased significantly from 1.9% to 46.2% and ‘Para badminton’ from 5.5% to 34.9%. Awareness of the three words ‘Deaflympics’, ‘Special Olympics’ and ‘classifier’ remained low and almost the same at less than 5% from 2014 to 2021. Of the three words included in the survey from 2018, ‘Paralympic education’ stayed almost the same with an increase of 1.8% over the three-year period, while ‘Olympic and Paralympic legacy’, ‘inclusive society’ and ‘reasonable accommodation’ increased gradually over the three-year period.

These increases in awareness are thought to be influenced by the amount of media coverage, such as on television and in newspapers, and the success of athletes such as winning medals at the Paralympic Games.

The increase in awareness of these words related to Para sports suggests that in terms of intangible legacies, the Paralympic Games in Japan left legacies particularly in terms of knowledge of sports and especially Para sports events.

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The objective of this study is to analyse the impact of the Tokyo 2020 Games on Games and City volunteers one year after the Tokyo 2020 Games, such as their motivation, how they felt after volunteering, and their current volunteer activities. In particular, the characteristics of the two types of volunteers, Games volunteers and City volunteers, are analyzed. The study used the “Tokyo 2020 Games ʻVolunteersʼ One Year After Survey” conducted by the Nippon Foundation Volunteer Center as its data base.

The survey items include basic attributes （gender, age, place of residence, occupation, current volunteer activities, frequency of activities, how the volunteering is done, past volunteer activities） and for other items, motivation for participation, what was gained and felt from the activities, changes in attitudes and behaviour after the Games, and current activities. These items are analysed by type of volunteer （Games volunteers and City volunteers）, type of event （Olympic Games and Paralympic Games）, gender and age.

The results from both Games on motivation for participation and what was gained from the activities, showed that volunteering for the Paralympics enables Games volunteers and City volunteers to achieve their objectives of learning how to support people with disabilities and acquiring communication skills. The results also showed that women have a strong motivation that is specifically related to the COVID-19 pandemic and a strong sense of personal growth, in responses such as “I wanted to support the athletes who are working hard during the COVID-19 pandemic” and “I wanted to broaden my perspective”. Survey results also indicated that younger people had a strong motivation for participating in experiences that would lead to a career.

Regarding changes in attitudes and behaviour after the Games, regardless of volunteer type, the most common responses among volunteers in both the Olympic and Paralympic Games were “I am participating in activities with fellow Tokyo 2020 Games volunteers” and “I feel closer to Para sports.” The results also showed what changes through the Paralympics and what is gained through long-term activities. By gender, women showed a higher increase in interest in sports （disciplines） that they did not know previously and in Para sports than men.

In terms of current volunteer activities, the City volunteers are more active than the Games volunteers. By gender, men, and by age, older people, are more active.

The content of the activities of Games volunteers and City volunteers are substantively different, but there was no significant difference in motivation for participation and in what they gained from the Games. However, experience volunteering for the Paralympic Games had an impact on motivation for participation and what was gained from the experience, as well as changes in attitudes and behaviour after the Games.

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Since 2000, there has been a growing focus on using sport as a tool to solve a wide range of social issues, a trend accelerated by the adoption of the Sustainable Development Goals （SDGs） by the UN. In the process, the concept of Sport for Development and Peace （SDP） became prevalent both as an analytical concept in research and in practice at the UN and elsewhere. In the context of this trend, the International Paralympic Committee （IPC） began to pay more attention within the Paralympic Movement to solving social problems through sport. The IPC’s presence as an international advocacy organisation is growing, particularly through the drafting of the UN Convention on the Rights of Persons with Disabilities in 2006 and through the process of realising the SDGs adopted in 2015. Furthermore, through hosting the Paralympic Games, national governments and National Paralympic Committees （NPCs） have strengthened their efforts, such as in promoting policies to improve urban accessibility and perceptions of people with disabilities in their countries, and in supporting the participation of developing countries in the Paralympic Games. In addition, influential Paralympians have begun to use their high profile to become active in communicating on various social issues as activists on an individual level.

Looking at the Paralympic Movement from an SDP perspective, several issues emerge.

First, is whether a movement centered on the Paralympic Games, a place for elite athletes to be active, can really contribute to the social inclusion of people with disabilities in general.

Second, it is important to note the difficulties of implementing initiatives to improve the status of people with disabilities, to realise an inclusive society and build peace through sport in countries and regions around the world with diverse histories, cultures and political systems.

Furthermore, there is always the need to be aware of the danger of an international mega-event such as the Paralympic Games being used as propaganda to conceal or approve situations of human rights violations in authoritarian regimes such as China and Russia.

Third, by engaging with social issues beyond sport itself, the Paralympic Movement could become increasingly political, for example by being linked to nationalism.

Finally, there is the fundamental issue of how much the Paralympic Movement, which originally has been promoting the development of Para sport, should pay attention to social issues beyond sport. The question of the extent to which the IPC and NPC should be directly involved in the SDP field is a long debated issue on whether the main focus should be on sport excellence or on the social inclusion of persons with disabilities, and directly linked to the Paralympics’ identity itself. Ultimately, it will be important to consider the balance with the development of Para sport and the interests of Para athletes.

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There has been a focus on Paralympic and Para sport education in Japan in timing with the Tokyo 2020 Olympic and Paralympic Games. Specific initiatives include the activities of the Japan Sports Agency, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government and the Nippon Foundation Parasports Support Center. In school education, the large number of primary and secondary schools makes them an important venue for Paralympic and Para sport education.

Therefore, to clarify the implementation of Paralympic and Para sport education in national teacher training universities, which are the main source of human resources for primary and secondary education, this paper conducted research on the syllabuses made available by the universities. The aim of the research was to identify opportunities for primary and secondary school education personnel to take part in classes on education in inclusive society understanding through Paralympic and Para sport education.

Based on the extracted syllabus data, the following were conducted: （1） an understanding of the overall trend and（2）quantitative analysis. Specific classes were extracted from four “teacher training flagship universities” （Tokyo Gakugei University, University of Fukui, Osaka Kyoiku University and Hyogo University of Teacher Education）, which are considered to provide pioneering education, and Hokkaido University of Education, which had the highest extraction frequency. （3）Qualitative analysis was conducted on the data of classes from these five universities.

（1）In terms of understanding the overall trend, of the 36 targeted universities, 63.9％ had Olympic-related classes, 30.6％ had Paralympic-related classes and 55.6％ had classes related to Para sport groups.Classes on the Olympics were offered at more universities and had a larger number of classes than on the Paralympics. Of the terms identified for the Para sport groups ─ “Para sport”, “Disability Sports”including several ways of writing “disability” in Japanese（障害者，障がい者 and 障碍者）and “Adapted Sports” ─ “Disability（障害者）Sports” and “Disability（障がい者）Sports” were found to be used frequently.

（2） In the quantitative analysis, correlation and regression analyses were conducted between “university enrolment capacity” and “Olympics” and “Paralympics”. The results of the correlation analysis showed a positive relationship between the ‘number of university places and the respective number of relevant classes. The results of the regression analysis also showed that the ‘number of university places and the respective number of relevant classes are positively related as in the correlation analysis, and that the relevant statistics are also significant. The above results show that the ‘number of university enrolments’ is a determining factor in the number of classes respectively.

（3）In the qualitative analysis, the four ‘teacher training flagship universities and Hokkaido University of Education were analysed and it was found that Olympic and Paralympic Games-related classes at Hokkaido University of Education, Tokyo Gakugei University and Osaka University of Education, which are larger in size（number of university enrolments）, were filled. This trend would confirm what the quantitative analysis revealed. It was also clear that the field is carried by health and physical education and that personnel are often concurrently employed. However, sports education for the disabled in the field of education for children with disabilities is being implemented at the Hokkaido University of Education, Sapporo.

In the future, the enrichment of convivial education is expected to be increasingly in line with social needs. Therefore, it is considered essential to enhance classes by full-time teachers. In addition, some approaches from the field of education for children with disabilities（special needs）as well as the Hokkaido University of Education were observed. It is hoped that this trend will grow.

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In recent years, social awareness raising and political statements and actions by public figures and their impact on society, including on public opinion, have attracted increasing attention. Today, in particular, with the development of social media and the ability of anyone to disseminate information, the number of athletes who engage in social or political protests and awareness-raising activities both within and outside the sporting world is increasing, and their influence in shaping public opinion is expanding. Athletes’ awareness-raising activities and protests have a wide range of objectives, but one form of activism in sports has been the work of athletes with disabilities. Therefore, based on research trends on athletes and activism, this paper reviews previous research on what kind of awareness-raising and protest actions Para athletes in particular have engaged in, what are the circumstances leading to such actions as well as the limitations and possibilities of these examples of activism, and examines what direction future research needs to take.

Activism by Para athletes is described as actions taken by Para athletes to resist and transform attitudes and structures that can socially oppress people with disabilities in the context of Para sports and in wider society. At the same time, as the Paralympics, seen as a platform for social activism to improve the lives of people with disabilities, has expanded in scale as an international sporting event and gained greater social recognition, the social outreach of Para athletes has also strengthened. On the other hand, the risk of the media transmitting the message that individual Para athletes are “overcoming the limitations and challenges they each face” has also been raised. Concerns have also been expressed that this has contributed to the misrepresentation of the everyday challenges related to disability, and encouraged a merit-based way of thinking.

As discussed above, the expectations and concerns about Para athletes and activism is a recurring debate. In many cases, inequalities based on disability in the world of Para sports are also closely linked to policies and legislation on disability in wider society. Therefore, Para athletes transmitting information that is socially relevant is welcomed by society, and case studies of how and under what conditions Para athletes campaign against discriminatory practices are being conducted. With the expansion of the number of countries and regions participating in the Paralympic Games and the enhancement of its brand image, the impact that Para athletes have on society is expected to grow even more in the future. The IPC also hopes that Para athletes will play a role in social change, and is now working to train Para athletes in developing countries in the southern hemisphere and to expand the Paralympic broadcast area. This initiative is an expression of their aim to spread the Paralympic Movement in developing countries, where socio-political barriers surrounding disability are considered relatively high. However, the messages that Para athletes transmit, and how those messages are received by society, vary according to local characteristics and social conditions. In particular, research on activism has been heavily influenced by changes in media, notably social media. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct a multilayered study, focusing not only on the position of Para athletes in society, but also including the media used by the public as well as media literacy.

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As many Paralympic sports become more widespread and more competitive, there have been subtle changes in the meaning or function of the equipment used in the sports.

For example, the use of eyeshades in goalball equalizes the level of visibility and thus the degree of disability, ensuring fairness in competition. The equipment here does not complement physical ability, but rather is a means of creating a new sport by artificially creating a disability.

In wheelchair basketball, the wheelchair functions to complement physical ability, but it is also a means of creating a new sport in which able-bodied people can participate through using the wheelchair. In other words, the equipment is not a symbol of disability, but a symbol of disabled and able-bodied people enjoying sports together.

In addition, the success of some athletes has shown that prostheses for competitive sports can go beyond complementing physical abilities, and can be a means of demonstrating abilities beyond those of able-bodied athletes. In these cases, the question of how to evaluate the relationship between the effectiveness of the equipment and the athlete's own physical abilities has arisen, with new questions about the significance of equipment used by disabled people.

Thus, with the development of para sports, equipment that was originally used to complement the physical abilities of people with disabilities and that was a symbol of disability, has changed in terms of its meaning and function, creating a kind of paradox.

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パラリンピック・ムーブメントの歴史はオリンピック・ムーブメントと複雑に絡み合っており，これは今後も変わらないだろう。だが，パラリンピック・ムーブメントとオリンピック・ムーブメントそして両競技大会が一体化するのか，それぞれに独立するのか，あるいは現状のままなのかは不明であり，これが本稿の検討テーマである。仮説として，この両ムーブメントと競技大会は今後融合し続けることが考えられるが，その理由としては，スポーツ内外におけるいくつかの世界的動向が挙げられるだろう。例えば，国・ローカルレベルのパラリンピックスポーツのガバナンスの変化，障がい者アスリートの健常者スポーツへのインクルージョンの進展の遅れ，社会やビジネスにおける世界的動向としての平等・ダイバーシティ・インクルージョン，開催に意欲的な都市を確保するためのメガイベントが抱える課題，障害文化の経済・政治力の増大などである。

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パラリンピック競技大会の成功とレガシープランを持続可能な成果とレバレッジ戦略に転換するには，これまでの大会それぞれに固有の課題と機会が数多くあった。本稿では，リオ2016パラリンピック競技大会と東京2020パラリンピック競技大会の主催者がそうした課題や機会にどのように対処したかを比較検討する。リオ2016大会のプランニングは，政治経済危機，リオ2016大会の予算削減，環境や衛生の問題，ジカウイルス感染症，汚職スキャンダル，リオの財政破綻，国内の治安問題，リオ2016大会費用の肥大化，オリンピック大会とパラリンピック大会の不平等な扱いなど，ブラジルがとりわけ混乱期にある中で進められた。その結果，公文書に明記されたインクルージョンとダイバーシティの理念が，大会開催における実践レベルで効果的に実現されることはなかった。一方，東京2020オリンピック・パラリンピック大会は，世界規模のパンデミックの最中に開催された。それでも１年の延期を経て，８億ドル近くにのぼるチケット収入の損失や一般市民の大会開催反対，さらにはコストの急増，ほぼ無観客のスタジアム，歓声もない屋外会場など，COVID-19に関連した困難な問題に対処しての開催であった。とはいえ，東京大会は，マスコミを取り込み，障がい政策や「バリアフリー」アクションプランに影響を及ぼし，意識啓発・変革そして障がい者のための機会拡大に向けた国際的な動きを引き起こすなど，パラリンピック大会が果たし得る意識向上の可能性を示すモデルを提示した。リオと東京のパラリンピックがそれぞれにもたらした課題と機会に各開催都市がどのように対処したかを比較分析したところ，背景要因と開催意欲の重要性が浮き彫りになった。さらに，リオ2016パラリンピックの場合，東京大会とは異なり，開催前，開催中及び開催後において主催者側によるレバレッジ計画やその実践がほとんどなかった。リオでは，そのことが，背景特性と相まって，レガシー創生のプロセスを抑制した。結局のところ，一連の課題に主催者が十分に対処しなかったことで，リオにおいても東京においてもパラリンピックの持続的なレガシーを構築する機会を失うこととなった。分析に基づき，本稿では最後に，透明性の高い参加型の政策策定に向けてエビデンス基盤を構築するための教訓を見極め，パラリンピック大会及びそのレガシー創生のあらゆる側面から学ぶ。

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