The intricate dance between plants and their surroundings is governed by a complex set of adaptive behaviors, many of which are orchestrated at the epigenetic level. These epigenetic processes, including DNA methylation, modifications to histones, and the action of small RNAs, are crucial in adjusting how plants express their genes when faced with environmental stresses, both living (biotic) and non-living (abiotic). These changes not only help plants manage current adversities but also allow them to retain a memory of past challenges, potentially offering better protection against similar threats in the future. The advent of advanced epigenomic technologies and the introduction of CRISPR tools for epigenetic editing have greatly enhanced our grasp of the epigenetic mechanisms that underpin plant responses to stress. This review explores the intricate world of epigenetic regulation in plants, especially how it influences their ability to withstand stress, spotlighting significant discoveries and considering the role of epigenetic inheritance across generations in plant adaptation and evolution. Moreover, it discusses how integrating epigenomic information with other types of omics data can reveal detailed regulatory networks. Looking ahead, the review considers the hurdles and opportunities in applying our epigenetic knowledge towards improving crops, with a special focus on the promise of epigenetic engineering in boosting plant defense mechanisms against environmental challenges. This could play a pivotal role in promoting sustainable farming and ecosystem management. In sum, this paper emphasizes the vital importance of epigenetics in plant science, offering exciting prospects for enhancing agricultural methods and deepening our understanding of ecological interactions.

Chondroitin sulfate (CS), a glycosaminoglycan (GAG) member, is a partially sulfated linear polysaccharide. CS covalently binds to core proteins to form chondroitin sulfate proteoglycans (CSPGs), which are ubiquitously distributed on the cell surface and within the extracellular matrix. Over the past two decades, CS/CSPG products derived from natural sources, such as bovine, porcine, and salmon, have garnered increasing attention worldwide as promising agents for cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, and nutraceuticals. This review explores the characteristics of salmon cartilage proteoglycan (sPG) in pharmaceutical and nutraceutical oral administration compared with other CS/CSPGs. sPG can be easily extracted as a safe, functional anti-inflammatory and analgesic agent. sPG and other CS/CSPGs are translocated outside the gastrointestinal tract after oral intake. However, the translocated amount is minimal, and the underlying mechanism remains unclear. In addition to the conventional narrative that CSPGs exert their effects after absorption or translocation, this review discusses the potential behavior of CS/CSPGs that are not absorbed and remain in the gastrointestinal tract. The interaction activity of the CS chain and regulatory effects of sPG on intestinal bacterial flora suggest the potential luminacoid nature of CS/CSPGs. These insights improve our understanding of the functionality of exogenous CSPGs and expand their potential therapeutic applications.