This paper is the wrap-up of our research on meaningful reception learning from 1985 to the present time. Meaningful reception learning is a learning theory using advance organizers (AO) that emphasizes the deductive thinking process. AO is introduced prior to learning and it is a general and abstract concept that organizesthe learning that follows. Our research group has clarified that charts and models can be used as AO. The key factor of introducing AO lies in creating an environment in which learners question: "I do not understand. Why does this happen?" (This type of questioning is called "to create a cobweb condition"). Then advance organizers are inserted into such scenes. This paper is the summary of the AO that has been applied in our research up to now. AO is a technical term used in the research and is often called "hints" in the classroom. And they are sometimes expressed as "core perspective for oncoming learning". Similarly, meaningful reception learning is hereafter called simply "reception learning". The effects of reception learning are the following: students understand, especially children who are weak in science can understand; advanced learning can be introduced smoothly; children find science classes interesting because they understand. Reception learning cannot be replaced with discovery learning. Reception learning as well as discovery learning is included in problem-solving learning. Problem-solving learning can be enhanced by introducing reception learning. Reception learning is appropriate for learning abstract concepts. In that context, reception learning works well with many classes in junior high schools whereas discovery learning plays a pivotal role in elementary schools.

An experiential environmental education program has been developed and its effectiveness examined through the trial on first graders in lower secondary school. The assignment of the program is to "go outside and take five pictures which are connected to each other in such a way as to show the natural cycle from soil to soil." Through analysis of the trial, over 80% of students enjoyed and actively participated in the activity, were able to discuss among the group members, feel appreciation towards nature, and learned new concepts and/ or knowledge. Over 90% of students became aware of natural things through this study. Also, 60-70% of students became aware of cycles and relationships in nature. On the other hand, the explanation of the assignment is clearly difficult for many students to understand and a reform of the material and explanation of the activity is required.

This paper presents a development process of learning science with the help of analogies. Ever since science education has come under the influence of Constructivism, the learning of science with analogies has grown to become a popular approach in various areas. There have been two kinds of research focus on analogies. The first involves using analogy as a tool for teaching scientific knowledge; it is an approach that is teacher-centered. The second approach is students-centered wherein analogy is used as a tool for learning. In the first approach, a formulation of teaching procedures with analogies was attempted and established temporarily. Researches on the conceptual change approach have contributed to determining opportunities for the introduction of analogies in science classrooms. With regard to multiple analogies, some of the principles of selecting multiple bases and arranging them were revealed. However, the research focus has begun to shift from teacher-generated analogies to students-generated. It is for this reason that a view has spread which says that using teachergenerated analogies was neither the simple process of students constructing knowledge nor the process of transferring certain structural features from base to target but a process of constructing the analogical relation that the teacher aims at. On the other hand, using students-generated analogies can be traced to employing "selfexplanation" as a learning strategy. The act of using analogies for learning had been seen as a dynamic cycle of "Generation-Evaluation-Modification." When students practiced an analogy generating activity so as to explain scientific phenomena or concepts, their understanding was elaborate and deep. In addition, the effectiveness of social interactions, including group/wholeclass discussions, centered on students-generated analogies was explored. In the latest movements, both the progressions in research on analogy and the international trends in the "Nature of Science" as teaching content embedded in science curricula induced extensions in the role of analogies in science education. This means that analogies should be taught as a method of science, in addition to being used as tools for teaching/learning science.

In the present study, the authors practiced using a combination of newly developed model teaching aids of the moon's movement and observations to determine the effects on the level ofelementary education program students' understanding of the moon's appearance or phases. The content of the practice had two parts. One was to record periodical moon observations; the students were to record the waxing and waning of the moon for two consecutive days. The other was learning using the newly developed model teaching aids. The effects of the practice were evaluated by a questionnaire measuring the understanding of the positions and phases of the moon before and after the practice. As a consequence, the following findings were obtained: (1) The percentage of students who correctly described why the observed shapes of the moon looked different from day to day, as well as describing the revolution of the moon around the earth and the reflection of sunbeams, increased significantly compared to the prepractice rate. (2) The rate of correct answers to each of the following questions significantly increased when compared to the pre-practice rate: "In which direction did you see the full moon after sunset?" ; "In which direction did you see the crescent moon after sunset?" ; and "Tell thepositional relationship between the sun and the moon when the waxing moon was observable after sunset." (3) It was thus found that the use of a combination of the newly developed model teaching aids of the moon's movement and observations improved the level of elementary education program students' understanding of the moon's appearance or phases.

The purpose of this study was to examine the methodology of developing authentic tasks. First, I reviewed the perspectives and methods of the authentic task development. Second. I analyzed the process from the development of the authentic tasks to practice. The analysis of the process went mainly from the record left on Web. The following three points were obtained: (1) Circulatory Type Web Examination System that was related to the authentic taskdevelopment offered the chance not only to reduce a time, spatial distance of the developer and the practitioner, but also to make both reflect the development process of the task. (2) When the authentic task development on the Web was examined, the viewpoints were mainly in "content of the task" and "rubric" before we practiced it. However, the viewpoints were shifted to the analysis of "consideration of the answer" and "the children's reaction" after we had practiced it. (3) In the authentic tasks, the setting of the context that duplicates the problem of a plural reality for the child is more important.

The present study aimed to examine how students' setting of hypothesis by using the Four Question Strategy (4QS) affect their understanding of the inertia concept when they experiment on the movement of a trolley with different mass on a slope. As a result, two things became clear: First. more students from the crowd that had used 4QS recognized the outcome of the experiment correctly and were able to come to understand the inertia concept correctly than those from the crowd that had not. Second, it became clear that whether or not students had scientifically correct idea about relations between the movement and the mass of a trolley on the slope before the class activity does not influence their understanding of the inertia concept. Rather, what gives great impact on their understanding of the inertia concept is whether or not the students can clearly recognize and describe the hypothesis that verbalizes the induced variable and the autonomous variable.

By using the self-made textbook program, science students are able to create their own textbooks, and they are then able to comment on their teaching approaches on questionnaires after every class. Through analyzing this idea, we are able to help students learn better and see how they prefer to learn using the following techniques. We can improve the effectiveness of 1) Using figures, graphs, and pictures; 2) Using photos of experiments; 3) Using concrete, real-life examples; 4) Simplifying expressions and focusing on main points; 5) Using bolded and colored text to exaggerate important points or terminology; 6) Changing color of the topic headings. Learning practices 1 to 3 encourage deeper understanding, while practices 4 to 6 make understanding easier. It can be problematic to include their own experiment data in their textbooks. Some students think that experiment data should be explained logically in the scientific method of experiment-result-conclusion and it can be helped to reduce their anxiety that their experiment data might be incorrect. On the other hand, other students think that they had better not show experiment data in the self-made textbook because they should make their own conclusion. It is more important for students to experience the scientific method of experiment-result-conclusion by themselves.

To clarify the process wherein the use of certain science teaching materials or educational activities is discontinued, the author focuses on the practice of "visiting factories" as part of the science curriculum discourse in Japanese schools from the early Taisho to early Showa period. This study aims at examining the intentions behind and restrictions on the practice of visiting factories, and divides them into various types. First, the intentions behind visiting factories were categorized into three types: A. The inclusion of more practical content in the science curriculum and out of school activities; B. The movement to emphasize on locality and science teaching materials; C. A war time regime and visiting factories. Second, the restrictions on visiting factories arose from difficulties with regard to school hours and budget, and the concerned persons tried to overcome them. These restrictions were encountered in the following four areas: A. Surveying factories that could be visited by students and/ or teachers; B. Gathering specimens of industrial products and calling for industrial products from local factories; C. Using audiovisual aids such as educational movies; D. Undertaking school excursions involving visits to factories as part of extracurricular activities. Finally, a hypothetical model of the practice of visiting factories as part of science curriculum discourse in Japanese schools from the early Taisho to early Showa period was suggested.

Insects belonging to "Orthoptera" appear in the song "Mushi no koe" (or "The Voice of the Insects"). This study intended to investigate how much students were capable of identifying by observing the insects' shapes and listening to the chirping sounds, and also if the identifying abilities were influenced by the students' sex and other attributing varieties such as school, grade, and place of residence. As a result, the following three were clarified: 1. It was difficult to identify the insects by observing the shapes except for "Teleogryllus emma" and "Meloimorpha japonica". Additionally, it was difficult to identify all the insects only by listening to the chirping sounds. 2. There was a significant difference between male and female students. Female students found it more difficult to identify the insects than the male. 3. There was no significant difference by students' attributing varieties such as school, grade, and pace of residence.

As for the conservation of mass, conceptual change is difficult. The development of an effective teaching method is needed. The purpose of this paper is the following two points. First, it is to examine whether externalizing the idea of the students by a figure is effective for conceptual change. Next, it is to examine whether discussion in small group in addition to externalizing the idea of the students by a figure is effective for conceptual change. The findings of this study are as follows: (1) Only the method of externalizing the idea of the students by a figure is not more effective for conceptual change of the conservation of mass. (2) It is effective teaching method that externalizing the idea of the students by a figure and having the discussion in small groups induces for conceptual change of the conservation of mass.

This paper investigates nature experiences in childhood, interest in natural science and feelings against nature, in subjects ranging from their teen to the 60's. As a result, there has been a tendency for natural science and feelings against nature to decrease among younger subjects. Moreover it considers the relationship between nature experiences and natural science or feelings against nature. Thus, the following results were obtained: there were items which indicated the light correlation with the interest in natural science and the sentiment on nature and life, and which did not show the correlation as much. Furthermore, the direction will be to reflect the surrounding sphere that has much relation with nature for infants in preschool and elementary education.

This study investigated the awareness about plastics. a familiar substance for everyone. The objectives were primary school students, secondary school students and adults. The investigation showed that they did not think deeply on it, but having their image to plastics. and not having the compatible understanding. Reflecting this result, I have developed and practiced a new learning program from the student's viewpoint, and acquired the educational effect. I. propose this program for the lessons in plastics, or a practical use for an educational guidance.

In order to deepen students' understanding of sound energy, we proposed a science class with an experiment using a teaching device of sound energy conversion, which was applied to the third grade students of a public lower secondary school. The teaching device that is turned on by a human voice was made from a piezoelectric element, a polyethylene cup, and two red LEDs. Before the class, students had the following false preconceptions: sound arises from electricity; sound is used in daily life; sound is not energy. Other students had come across the concept that sound is a kind of energy but did not fully comprehend it. During the course of the class. students were able to experience and understand the conversion of sound energy to electrical energy through the experiment using the teaching device. After the class, it was found through a questionnaire that students had gained better understanding that sound can be converted into other energy. Thus, it is suggested that the methodology used in our science class is useful to the understanding of sound energy.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the trends and patterns within the test content of Ehime Prefecture's Upper Secondary School Entrance Examinations over the past thirty-one years. For this purpose, 1,331 questions were extracted and organized into a text database to facilitate an analysis of the method of questioning, as well as the content of the questions. Questions were formatted to alternately elicit "short answers", "written answers", or "multiple choice answers". Their content classified as "scientific terminology", "calculations", "explanation of natural phenomena", "explanation of reasoning", and "figures and graphs". This study makes reference to the national science curriculum and divides the time covered into three ranges; "Era I"(1981-1988), "Era II"(1993-1997), and "Era III"(2002-2007). As a consequence, the changing particular characteristics of each range were examined, and the following three conclusions were drawn. (1) The "written answer" format and the "explanation of reasoning" question content appear less frequently in all of fields and ranges. (2) There was a variation according to the respective Fields in both question types and question content. In Field 1, short answer questions and calculation questions were numerous, while in Field 2 multiple choice questions and questions dealing with the explanation of natural phenomena were numerous. (3) It became clear that trends in the method of questioning for science questions from Upper Secondary School Entrance Examinations changed dramatically through the above mentioned time era - - especially Era I and Era II.

In this paper, we describe three demonstration experiments associated with static electricity.The first experiment involves observing the relationship between water flow and static electricity. This experiment requires a high voltage DC generator, parallel plate electrodes, etc. In this experiment. it is possible to observe the deflection of water flowing past a region where there are parallel plates with high voltage applied. The second experiment involves observing a water droplet divided by static electricity. This experiment requires an electrostatic high-voltage transformer and equipment that can continuously supply water droplets. Using equipment which can continuously supply water droplets to an electrostatic high-voltage generator, Rayleigh fissuration can be observed continuously. The third experiment involves the use of an electric dust precipitator that removes smoke using static electricity. This experiment requires a high voltage DC generator and electrodes for dust collection, etc. The electrodes for dust collection allow for the observation of the removal of the smoke in a moment. The electric wind that arises near the electrode during dust collection greatly affects the removal of the smoke. These teaching materials have been used in class and there has been generally good reaction to their use.

In the new course of study in 2008 in Japan, one of the purpose is to improve the science and the mathematics education. Students need to get not only a lot of knowledge, but also apply to daily life and society. For example, most students know "Ice float on water." "Why does ice float on water?" Many students can answer that ice is lower density than water. "Which is denser, solid or liquid?" Many students can answer that it's solid. But few student can answer to "Why does ice as solid float on water as liquid?" So it is important to develop advanced teaching materials that relate water in the daily life to the world of water molecules. On this research, we developed new visualized model of the water molecule. It is made of formed polystyrene and inexpensive magnet. It has the properties of polar molecule and can move as the polar molecule. We practiced the lesson in Japan and Ghana, and the students understood water to the particles. This knowledge is not only the memorizing but also the activity. This water model suits to upper secondary student for the polar molecule. It is important to develop of the teaching materials that relate in the daily life to the world of atoms, ions and molecules.

A novel dextrin ( Cluster Dextrin), that is easy to prepare due to the high solubility, was used as a substitute starch, in order to plan a new science instruction on experiments for understanding the function of saliva. Because of disturbance by iodine to the glucose-detection reaction, the substitute starch solution stained with iodine, which is used for the colordisappearance experiment by saliva, cannot use directly for the successive glucose-detection reaction. Therefore, we divided it two processes. The first experiment is DHl (Daeki-noHatrakijikken 1); in order to see the digestion process, the developed color with iodine addition was disappeared by addition of saliva. The second experiment is DH2 (Daeki-no-Hatrakijikken 2); a substitute starch solution after digestion with saliva was divided into two half-volumes, one half is used for the glucose-detection reaction, and the other half is used for the check of digestion of the substitute starch with iodine addition. These experimental procedures are very simple and the materials that are used are cheap and convenient, therefore, every student can do these experiments by themselves. These experiments are able to be done within one-third of the one-unit class time. The shortening of time to conduct the experiments guarantees much time for the students to consider the results and discussion. This science instruction will, we speculate, promote the understanding of students on function of saliva and digestion.