For this study, we examined the existence of unclear thoughts in the process from the observation of events to the generation of scientifically explorable “questions” in science classes for lower secondary school students The purpose of our research in this area is to clarify where “question” generation can be found in the learning process. Students in lower secondary school science classes were more likely to go through the process of generation using this model: “noticed something→wondered something→generated a question.” On the other hand, many other elements of scientific inquiry such as causality, regularity, interrelationships, and similarities/differences are clearly included in the transition to “generated a question” in the process of generating scientifically explorable “questions”. It is this nuanced learning process that we sought to elaborate in this research.

With an aim to design a science class that successfully adopts manufacturing (Monozukuri in Japanese) activities based on engineering design, this study implemented such a science class and investigated its educational effects in junior high school students. To achieve these objectives, we initially investigated practical examples of science classes that introduce engineering design in the United States. Subsequently, we designed and implemented a science lesson with a manufacturing activity based on engineering design in the unit on “electric current and its uses” in the 8^th grade. The educational effects of the manufacturing activity based on engineering design were analyzed by an inventory survey to determine the domains that are affected, such as students’ interest in science learning. In addition, text-mining on the impressionistic essays of the class with the manufacturing activity was analyzed to reveal how junior high students felt about the manufacturing activity. The manufacturing activity based on engineering design raised students’ interest in science, let students realize the significance of science learning, and effectively promoted creative and independent learning activities. We were thus able to confirm the effectiveness of incorporating engineering design with “Monozukuri” activities into Japanese lower secondary science classes, as compared to a conventional manufacturing activity.

Spatial perspective-taking is a particularly necessary aspect of spatial cognition that is essential for a complete understanding of the lunar phases. First, this study assessed lower secondary school students’ spatial perspective-taking abilities in the context of the lunar phases. Consequently, it was determined that the “ability to visualize an imaginary body movement” was necessary to foster understanding among the students. Additionally, the following abilities, to infer information about the moon by analyzing specific positions of the imaginary body, were also deemed imperative: the “ability to infer the shape of the unlit part of the spherical moon”; the “ability to infer which side of the moon will appear unlit” at 45° and 135°; the “ability to infer whether a part of the moon will appear unlit or not” at 90°; and the “ability to infer which side of the moon will appear unlit” at 180°. It was found that the cognitive load—for each ability—increases in the following order: the “ability to infer whether a part of the moon will appear unlit or not”; < the “ability to infer which side of the moon will appear unlit”, << the “ability to infer the shape of the unlit part of the spherical moon.” Second, we assessed the students’ changes in the extent of spatial perspective-taking by considering the movement of the imaginary body. Movement of the avatar, presentation of its field of view, and the re-experience of its movement all facilitated the superposition of the avatar and the imaginary body. This clearly improved the students’ “ability to visualize an imaginary body movement,” assisting them in making inferences that cause high cognitive load (e.g., the “ability to infer the shape of the unlit part of the spherical moon”).

Previous studies have pointed out that it is important for lower secondary school science lessons to aim for purposeful learning activities based on the Investigational Activity Process in order for pupils to realize Proactive, Interactive, and Deep Learning successfully. We analyzed several studies which pointed out that utilizing rubrics to drive learning activities is one of many valid tools in constructing and practicing effective science lessons. In this study, teachers and children collaborated on constructing rubrics in a junior high school science lesson. We used a “Pass-the-Hat” model to construct shared rubrics as proposed by Stevens and Levi (2014). In practice, the effectiveness of the lesson confirmed that the rubrics created by teachers and children in collaboration can be a model case of evaluation that indeed contributes to the students’ successful realization of Proactive, Interactive, and Deep Learning.

According to Suzuki (2014), Instructional Design for Science Lessons is useful as a theory toward the realization of Proactive, Interactive, and Deep Learning. This study aims to further refine the notion of Proactive, Interactive, and Deep Learning throughout dialogic activities. Murphy (2018) proposed a teaching framework based on how teachers support student’s discussions. Therefore, the Framework of Teaching Method by Murphy (2018) was applied to the Instructional Design for Science Lessons in high school geoscience, on the topic of atmospheric instability. This study analyzed details of portfolios and statements. The results suggest that the viewpoint of teachers’ support in facilitating student discussions was indeed useful as an effective perspective for realizing the Proactive, Interactive, and Deep Learning via dialogic activities.

This research focuses on a theory of knowledge integration proposed by Linn (2000) for the purpose of clarifying the concrete process of thinking by associating knowledge and skills toward the realization of “deep learning”, a theory that has been attracting attention in recent years. We conducted a case study analysis of students’ thinking on the problem-solving process based on dialogue in science. Our results revealed that the students repeatedly performed “micro integration (referred to as MI in this study)” intended to solve the immediate problem. In knowledge integration, it became clear that students perform “micro integration” in problem solving, gradually increasing the abstraction of knowledge and ideas, to eventually reach a deep understanding of scientific knowledge and theory.

For this study, we conducted research into how the amount of electric current is expressed in the courses of study for elementary and lower secondary school science. The revision of the courses of study in 2017 standardized the expression to estimate the amount of current as “the amount of electric current is large/little” for both elementary and lower secondary schools for the first time. To evaluate if the new expression has since become widespread, we did a survey on the new expression with 76 lower secondary school students. In addition, we conducted the same questionnaire survey with 156 teachers in eight elementary schools and five lower secondary schools. The results of our surveys yielded three significant findings: 1) The lower secondary school students surveyed had started to adopt and use the expression, “the amount of electric current is large/little”, but they also tended to use the expression, “the amount of electric current is strong/weak.” 2) There was a larger difference in the expression (of the amount of electric current) between teachers in elementary schools and lower secondary schools. 3) Four out of the five major science textbooks for elementary schools continued to use the expression, “the amount of electric current is strong/weak”, until 2019.

Nine years have passed since the Great East Japan Earthquake, and it is necessary to consider the future treatment of radiation education in schools from the viewpoint of building a sustainable society as well as within the context of energy and environment education. In order to deal with radiation that exists around us and to incorporate this topic into cross-curricular educational content related to contemporary issues from the primary education stage, it is important to develop the qualities and abilities of elementary school teachers who provide guidance and to set up training for that purpose. In this research, we have summarized trends in the treatment of radiation education in the Ministry of Education, Fukushima Prefecture, and nationwide. Based on these trends, we investigated the development of a primary school teacher training program on radiation education in Shiga Prefecture including the UPZ (Urgent Protective action planning Zone) area. The purposes of the teacher training program were set out as follows: (1) To recognize the significance of radiation education (2) To acquire basic knowledge through experiments and observations (3) To recognize the self-situation in the UPZ as compared to the situation in Fukushima. To achieve this purpose, we conducted a training course for elementary school teachers in cooperation with external lecturers, incorporating experiments and observations. As a result of this training, the teachers were able to notice the significance of radiation education practice, and the importance of acquiring knowledge and skills related to radiation, regardless of where they live.

This study developed teaching aids to help students with the derivation of an equation on the principle of leverage. The aim was to use the teaching aids to redescribe internal representations that arose and were molded in pupils and to derive an external representation, namely, an equation on the principle of leverage, which is a mathematical expression. As a result, first, use of the “grid expression” arose and formed internal area representations during data interpretation. Next, employment of “block expression” and “area representation” arose and formed internal area representations as well. Additionally, the internal area representations were redescribed (converted and integrated) and the right-hand side of a lever balanced with the left-hand side was expressed as external representations. Use of these grid, block, and area expressions allowed transfer between internal representations. Pupils were able to generate and form internal area representations, and then convert and integrate them. In other words, they were able to redescribe the generated and formed internal representations and interpret data as external representations, i.e., “the mass of weights x number of ticks=a constant.”

The purpose of this study is to clarify the challenges of the deductive reasoning process in the learners’ hypothesis verification stage of independent inquiry activities. For this purpose, university students were asked to describe their hypothesis verification and reasoning processes in an independent inquiry activity, and the results were analyzed from a logical perspective. The results of our analysis revealed that some of the university students were unable to adequately reason about the factor, X, which causes phenomenon B in situation A. Moreover, some of the participating students could not reason either “if A then X” or “if X then B”, or both. This outcome suggests that further study is needed as to how the education system can better equip students with the necessary deductive reasoning skills.

In this study, the effect of hydrodynamic flow using Lorentz force has been verified to provide a new method of stirring a solution for an electrochemical experiment in science education. As verification, an electrolysis of KCl aqueous solution has been carried out using Al electrodes under a longitudinal magnetic field in the well of a well plate, assuming a microscale electrolysis experiment. The outcome confirmed that applying an electric current to a solution leads to a swirl flow within the solution, with the result that the whole solution becomes effectively stirred. This study suggests the possibility of the useful application of a solution stirring action caused by a longitudinal magnetic field in microscale electrochemical experiments.

The “three states of water” unit, studied as part of the grade 4 science curriculum in elementary school includes an experiment in which water is heated to help pupils understand that water changes into water vapor because of its high temperature. Pupils come to understand the properties of water through an experiment in which water is actually heated and its change in temperature is ascertained and recorded, allowing them to make a connection between the temperature of water and its state. Although the boiling point of water varies according to atmospheric pressure and the presence of impurities, it is widely regarded as generally being 100°C. However, with the experimental method described in the textbook, when a beaker is used as the container in which the water is poured, that temperature is shown to be 97–98°C. This is due to a problem with the specification of the bar thermometer used, but is not adequately understood by the elementary school teachers. Thus, in this study, the following two improvements were made to the beaker and the bar thermometer experimental method based on the characteristics of the bar thermometer specifications. (1) Before covering the beaker with the aluminum foil lid, a hole wider than the diameter of the bar thermometer is made in the aluminum foil. (2) A bar thermometer with a range of measurement of 0 to 200°C is used. The adjusted lesson was delivered in an elementary school science class, where it was confirmed that a measurement of close to 100°C was also obtained in the children's experiments.

In addition, when delivering the lesson, it was noted that problems with the air-conditioning environment were encountered, suggesting the air vent in the room as a possible additional factor contributing to minor variations in the students’ temperature readings.