This study aims to identify and categorize the teaching of strategies of argument as proposed in science education studies published in Europe and the US, and to find the design principles that can be used in science education to improve students' argument skills. In recent years, the need to cultivate students' argument skills has been highlighted, and many practical and theoretical research studies on this topic have been conducted. These studies have found that using evidence and constructing well-structured arguments are difficult for students. The development of effective methods of teaching argument is therefore necessary. We derived various teaching strategies from five prior studies which conducted education projects with clear teaching strategies to support students' engagement in written argument, oral argument, and online forms of argument. We analyzed these teaching strategies and identified three design principles: "promoting students' understanding of the value of argument," "explaining the structure of argument and promoting its use," and "encouraging the use of knowledge on the subject in making an argument." These design principles are useful in practical research for the formulation of effective methods to cultivate argument skills in science classes in Japan.

Students' questions give them opportunities to learn and often encourage them to continue the learning activities in Science Classes. Therefore, it has a great significance to recognize and understand the questions of students accurately in order to design effective science lessons. In this study, we used "Science learning guides" which have worksheets based on the Epistemological Vee map. Those worksheets were developed for observation and experimentation. First, we improved the worksheets so that students would express their new questions and their opinions about the topic. Next, we analyzed the descriptions of students in three learning situations. As a result, we found some tendencies in each type of the learning process of the task. For instance, a lot of children formulate new questions and discuss them throughout tasks in which the type of learning process is to solve a series of problems by applying knowledge or concepts that they have acquired previously.

The purpose of this study was to first ascertain the learning situation of children in the activities of observing and considering experimental results and to then clarify the structure of factors that influence the learning of elementary and junior high school students in the same situation. To this aim, we administered a 15-item questionnaire to 200 grade five and six elementary school students. Three points were made clear from the results: (1) Children don't carry out enough activities that foster consideration of the experimental results in comparison to the activity of setting a hypothesis. (2) Rather than setting their own hypotheses and deriving their own interpretations, children often discuss the experiment after looking at a summary of considerations provided by the teacher. (3) For elementary school students, the activity of setting a hypothesis, and for junior high school students their reliance on their teacher, strongly influence the depth of students' consideration and critical thinking.

The purpose of this study was to examine how students acquire scientific concepts, and how the nature of the interaction between students is influenced by whether an experiment based on cooperative learning is carried out individually or in groups. The effects of cooperative learning on individual experiments were evaluated by a questionnaire measuring the concept of retaining properties of solutions and a coding analysis based on the qualitative analysis of TD (Transactive Discussion). As a result, the following findings were obtained: (1) Students who participated in cooperative learning using individual experiments had a deeper conceptual understanding, and were shown to retain these concepts for at least 3 months, as compared with the control group. (2) More dialogue of the operational transaction was generated in the experimental group that did individual experiments utilizing cooperative learning, as compared with the control group. (3) It was suggested that the generated dialogue that functioned as operational transactions with this strategy promoted the formation of scientific concepts regarding the properties of solutions.

The purpose of this study was to clarify whether children could develop microscopic awareness using a magnifying glass in the observation of morning glories. The study subjects were 38 first-grade elementary school children. Analysis was performed on observation records made by children for the first and fourth observations, out of four observations conducted in June 2010. Both quantitative and qualitative analyses were performed on children's sketches and accompanying notes for the first and fourth observations. In the quantitative analysis, the number of notes included in each sketch was counted; in the qualitative analysis, each sketch was evaluated by determining whether the parts of the morning glory were drawn "scientifically" or "artistically." Also, after the fourth observation, a questionnaire survey was conducted to obtain subjective opinions about the use of magnifying glasses for observation. From the quantitative analysis, it was found that the number of children who had written a greater number of notes for the fourth observation than for the first observation was greater in terms of statistical significance than the number of those who had not. In the qualitative analysis, the number of children who drew a "scientific" sketch (i.e. a sketch accurately depicting the characteristics of each part of a morning glory) was larger than that of children who drew an "artistic" sketch. Moreover, as a result of examining the relationship between the qualitative nature (scientific or artistic) of the sketch and the number of included notes, it was found that in the scientific sketches, a note was provided for every illustrated part. In the subjective survey, positive responses were obtained for all the questionnaire items. From the results outlined above, it can be concluded that children can indeed deepen their microscopic awareness via observation activities using magnifying glasses.

In this paper, we report that a micro-scale experiment is an effective method not only for the protection of the environment, but also for the improvement of students' critical thinking abilities. We developed a junior high school science lab experiment using a new plastic container with transparent sides (called a Pack-Test container) that allows detailed observation of chemical phenomena around the electrodes during classroom lab experiments with cells and electrolysis. Using the teaching materials we developed for cell and electrolyzing experiments, several classes for junior high school students were conducted. From a questionnaire and written responses, we found that the present teaching materials have the efficacy to cultivate and improve students' scientific abilities to hypothesize, analyze, and explain through observing chemical reactions near the electrodes.

The purpose of this study was to clarify how the "Rikai-no-mokuhyo (Objectives of Understanding)" compiled by the Science Advisory Committee influenced elementary school science education reform in Post-war Japan. Through the study of documentary records, the following results were reached: (1) In the lower grades, "Rikai-no-mokuhyo" was composed of forty scientific concepts (upper concepts) in three fields: "living things", "the sky and the ground", and "machines and tools". In the upper grades, "Rikai-no-mokuhyo" was consisted of sixty-three scientific concepts (upper concepts) in above three fields, plus the field of "health". (2) Although "Rikai-no-mokuhyo" was different in terms of the school year grades and the content areas, it was compiled with reference to "Rika-no-hon (Science Book)" (1947) by the Ministry of Education, "Science for the Elementary School Teacher" (1940) by Gerald Spellman Craig, and "A course of study in elementary science, Spokane Public Schools" (1943). (3) The curriculum for elementary school science handed down by the Ministry of Education in February 1949 was compiled not on the basis of "Course of Study-Science (tentative plan)" (1947), but on the basis of "Rikai-no-mokuhyo". (4) The objectives for the elementary school science curriculum developed by the boards of education of Kagawa and Nagano prefecture were almost entirely based on "Rikai-no-mokuhyo". (5) The compilation of "Rikai-no-mokuhyo" not only clarified standards for elementary school science textbooks and curricula, but also fostered the democratic editing of science texts and curricula in local regions.

Trial teaching is thought to have an important role in the development of prospective teachers' competencies towards teaching practice. Many prior studies have focused on the competencies development of the prospective teacher who practiced trial teaching after they have become teachers. But he/she can experience trial teaching as a teacher much fewer times than as a student. This indicates that the prospective teacher, as a student in trial science teaching, has many opportunities to learn about methods of lesson planning and teaching practice. Therefore this study aimed to clarify what competencies he/she developed from the viewpoint of observation and critical perspectives of science teaching. As a result of analyzing the 'content' and 'depth' of comments in the 'good points' and 'improving points' sections of 'comment cards', the following three points were revealed. (1) When prospective teachers critiqued trial teaching, they tended to examine both 'good points' and 'improving points' focusing on individual teaching acts. In contrast, there were a small portion of them who examined both 'good points' and 'improving points' focusing on teaching materials, and there were a small portion of them who examined 'improving points' focusing on lesson structure. (2) In the case of 'good points', many prospective teachers commented at the level of 'general elementary school teaching'; on the other hand, a small portion of them commented at the level of 'unit specific'. (3) In the case of 'improving points', either more or a comparable number of prospective teachers commented at the level 'unit specific' than those who commented at the other levels.

One of the most important problems in science education is to foster the ability of "Scientific Thought and Expression". It is suggested that learning tasks that emphasize problem-solving can improve this ability. In this research, we clarified that the science lessons utilizing the concept of the 4MAT system could systematically design problem-solving learning activities. The results showed that the science lessons can design problem-solving learning systematically. Furthermore, the analyses of the children's activities in these science lessons revealed the following: In the first and the second quadrants, the children could glean and sort out a lot of digital and analog information though the observation and examination of natural phenomena while utilizing their own life experience and knowledge of the world. In the third quadrant, the children constructed a part of their common sense from experimental results and their own pre-conceptions, and they adjusted their conceptions through inter-subjective discussions and presentations. Thus, the children incorporated their scientific conceptualizations into their common sense. Though those activities, the children constructed a lot of the solution models as common sense in their classrooms and inter-subjectively selected their models. Finally they decided on the scientific model and incorporated it into their common sense. In the fourth quadrant, the children constructed the knowledge as a scientific conception as a result of reflecting upon their own learning from the first quadrant to the third quadrant. The children use this conception in their understanding of new science topics.

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effectiveness of a program in which grade nine students' course work with rich pedagogical content knowledge (PCK), along with information about the course work, is given to sophomore college students, in terms of what prospective teachers learn from the course work. In addition, we evaluate the post-test and delayed tests to see if they could be accurately used as PCK measurement tests. For this purpose, sophomore students were taught this course work. It contained actual science class content for grade nine students, as well as information including the goal of the classes, knowledge, of the academic field, utilization of collaborative learning in classes, and methods of demonstrate experiments, and approach in the use of the portfolio of teaching materials. Qualitative data and quantitative data were collected. We conducted (1) a comparison of results among pre-test, post-test, and delayed test, (2) a comparison of the test performance between students who took this course and those who did not, (3) an analysis of the correlation between test performance of college introductory level chemistry, for the purpose of learning content knowledge of this field, and the delayed test. As a result, prospective students could not get high scores on this test without this course work. We found less correlation between the content knowledge test and this test; although students could get high scores on the content knowledge test, they did not always get high scores on the delayed test, and vice versa. As for the qualitative data, students answered questionnaires and gave interviews. As a result, (1) all prospective teachers learned content knowledge for the course work for PCK, (2) some of them reported that they learned teaching methods, especially in terms of how to transform content knowledge to teachable knowledge. This revealed that some of the prospective teachers found the definition of PCK after Lee Shulman (1986) by themselves. Finally, the data from the test developed in the present study were collected and analyzed by Rasch Modeling measurement. The results imply that these items could be used to test for PCK measurement.

This research investigates pupils in the fourth grade who are thought to be still developing their self-regulating ability. The students focused on in this study were taking a science class focusing on electrical currents and a teacher gave them a task of making a current circuit. Firstly, this research analyzes how pupils select information for making a current circuit and carry out the task. Secondly, an experiment is conducted from the perspective of the developmental phases of self-regulating ability explained in Self-Regulated Learning by Zimmerman, B.J. As a result of this research, it is revealed that there is another factor which enables pupils to make a current circuit. They do not learn to do so just because they see four pieces of information located in the science laboratory; the pupils additionally send and/or receive necessary information to/from others, and make a new community to solve the problem. In this class making a current circuit, four abilities concerning self-regulation as pointed out by Zimmnerman can be seen. Moreover, communication activities enable pupils to monitor their own situations and gain support which motivate them toward taking action. By adjusting their own behavior in this way, pupils are able to successfully make a current circuit.

Knowledge and a basic understanding of natural phenomenon have been shown to be necessary for those who experienced the East Japan Great Earthquake Disaster, and more generally, for all those who live in the Japanese archipelago. The importance of learning about nature by way of an experientially based pedagogy has been made evident. This article clarifies the present conditions of such an educational program and examines issues based on the findings. The contents are as follows: ① the realities faced by teachers of natural phenomenon and science, ② the implementation of outdoor experiential studies of nature, and (3) implementation progress and contents of outdoor nature experiential studies in public elementary schools of Tokyo and Kanagawa. Finally, I offer some recommendations for some possible ways to foster and improve upon nature experiential studies in public elementary schools.

A new course of study on "the usage of radiation" has been introduced into the Junior High school science curriculum. As this content is new, the evaluation of the program and development of teaching materials is expected by the teachers. This study examines teaching materials on the usage of radiation and reports the result of lesson utilizing new teaching methods and materials. The teaching methods and materials examined include the observation of a cloud chamber, the simulation of a nuclear fission reaction, non-destructive tests using radiation, industrial production using radiation, the extermination of insects, and the effect of radiation on human beings. A science lesson for 8th grade lower secondary school students was implemented. Students could observe the radiation in a cloud chamber. Students' understanding of radiation and its applications changed after the science lesson. Based on the results, it is clear that the examined teaching program and materials are effective for science lessons in Junior High school.

Students are surrounded by many kinds of digital devices in their daily lives. However, students usually do not know their mechanisms; to most, they remain mysterious "black boxes". In order to understand the mechanism of digital devices, we developed a digital thermometer. A digital thermometer is built with a sensor, a digital voltmeter, telephone cable and a battery. We can draw a reliable calibration curve between temperature and voltage with this digital device. Students can use the digital thermometers they construct to measure their body temperatures, as well as to gather other data for comparison experiments. Not only can the children deepen their understanding of the mechanisms of digital devices, but they can also realize the utility of science and mathematics. Moreover, the cost of the materials for the thermometer is inexpensive. We propose some lesson plans utilizing this teaching material. We expect that many teachers will use this digital thermometer in their lessons.

We conceived of a method using poster-adhesive stickers (such as the brand Wappon) for the observation of eggs and embryos of Medaka fish (Oryzias latipes) under microscope. Two pieces of Wappon are put on a slide glass, leaving about 1 cm of space between them, and a Medaka egg with water is placed in the space between the two Wappon, and another cover glass is placed on top of the egg, creating a bridge over the two Wappon. The thickness of the Wappon is slightly thinner than the diameter of Medaka egg, so the covering glass puts some pressure on the egg. By sliding the cover glass on the Wappon, the students can rotate the egg and change direction, and the student can obtain clear microscopic images. The material cost is inexpensive, and the way of making the slides is not too difficult for children. This method can be utilized in science or biology lessons in elementary school, junior and senior high schools.

The use of Mole, a unit of measurement used in Chemistry to express amounts of a chemical substance, is one of the important contents of the subject-area Science in the upper secondary school curriculum and is a requirement for applicants to a science course of university (SCU). The trend and the problem with the acquirement of understanding of Mole have been studied with regard to the changing curriculum on the bases of questions and test scores from the National Center for University Entrance Examination (NCUEE) over 20 years(1990-2009). For three subjects, Chemistry, Chemistry IB and Chemistry I, the relationship between average scores for the subject and for questions about Mole is shown to be fairly linear throughout those 20 years under the evolving course of study. The significance of Mole as a basic concept of the Science curriculum of upper secondary school is suggested by its inclusion within NCUEE entrance examinations. The required subject "Science I" was taken by every student until the couse of study was revised in 1989; the author is concerned about students who, unless they selected one of three subject-areas under the revised course of studies since 1989, may have "fallen through the cracks" and therefore lack knowledge of a concept as fundamental as "Mole" at their SCU. The number of such students has been estimated to be not less than 1.6% (3000) of annual SCU enrollment (190,000), who were examinees of NCUEE from 2007 through 2010. The issues raised in this paper lead the author to present some suggestions for the future of the Science curriculum, counseling for the choice of university, and the use of the NCUEE examination for selecting entrants of SCU.