An effective educational reform which intends to change formal and non-formal educational systems must be accompanied by a revision in educational adiministration and finance, because the latter serves as an essential support to the former. The National Council on Educational Reform has set forth some basic goals for educational reform in its reports. In order to achieve those goals, the government and the Ministry have the task to change the administrative machinery of education in the following areas: 1. The public sector alone will hardly be able to afford to satisfy the various needs of lifelong education and the individualized demands for schooling. Therefore, it will depend on the private sector for more financial resources and expect it to provide more diversified educational opportunities. As the role played by the private sector will be increasing, the Ministry of Education will need to institute a bureau or divisions to facilitate the promotion of educational activities in the private sector. 2. In order to promote lifelong learning policy not only in a single field of education but over the various administrative fields, the Ministries and Agencies concerned will have to cooperate with each other. Accordingly, it is desirable that the Cabinet should inaugurate a Lifelong Learning Ministerial Conference and a Lifelong Learning Headquarters attached to the Management and Coordination Agency. Both of them would assume liaison and coordination functions in terms of lifelong learning. Moreover, the Ministry of Education should establish a position of Deputy Vice-Minister for Educational Affairs. This person would be responsible for handling international issues on education, coping with the change towards a more international society. 3. The Ministry of Education should be freed of daily routine in order to spend enough time and energy for laying out a policy in a long-term perspective and from a more comprehensive viewpoint. For instance, to establish an Agency for National Universities as an external organ would relieve the Ministry of a part of its burden. In addition, it should establish a National Institute for Educational Research Advancement to furnish the Ministry with information necessary for policy-making through its nationwide network, based on its careful researches. 4. One of the strategies for decentralizing educational administration and stimulating local initiatives might be to clarify the shares of responsibility between the central, prefectural, and municipal governments, and to shift as much responsibility for providing educational service as possible to the municipal government, which is the closest to the inhabitants. The dual functions, educational administration and school management, should be separated and the former should come to rest with the prefectural boards of education and the latter with the municipal boards of education. 5. As regards small-sized municipalities which lack the capacity for managing schools efficiently, the "intermediate school districts" plan would be effective. That plan suggests that 100-150 thousand population districts should be inaugurated and a local board of education should be instituted in each of the districts, and at the same time that every school should have a governing body so that its operation might reflect opinions of the community.

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In the light of the urgent need for securing education adapted to the social changes and cultural developments of the nation, a Provisional Council on Educational Reform was established in Prime Minisiter's Office in August 1984. The Council suggested in the Reports that one of the fundamental principles of the Educational Reform should be the transformation of educational organization to a system of life-long learning. But it is not easy task to realize this proposal. First of all, we are asked to endeavor to establish a co-ordinated system of educational administration especially at each local government. Because, there are two dualsystems at the local educational administration, namely the dualsystem of school education sector (public and private) and the dualsystem of so-called social education sector (culture-centered and job-centered). After World War II, the system of the Board of Education was introduced to organize and administer education in accordance with an equitable popular will, not subject to an undue control. We believe that educational administration should be decentralized and also should be guaranteed to be independent of general administration. Generally speaking, we are apt to think that boards of education shall supervise every kind of education. But in reality, according to the Law Concerning Organization and Function of Local Educational Administration, public schools come under the jurisdiction of local boards of education, and private schools are supervised by prefectural governors. Children of 65.9% of all kindergarten children and pupils of 33.4% of all upper secondary schools pupils attended private schools at 1 May 1987 in Shizuoka prefecture. Notwithstanding, private school are completely independent of the Board of Education. Furthermore, there is a problem of how to define "education". As by the Article 89 of the Constitution enacted, no public money or other property shall be expended or appropriated for any educational enterprises not under the control of public authority. According to the official explanation, the educational enterprise means an enterprise which aims at mental, spiritual and physical development of the people, and an enterprise of mere transmitting of knowledges or skills is not considered the educational enterprise (Memorandum of Law Office, Feb. 1957). Actually, boards of education administer public cultural and social educational institutions and promote cultural and social educational activities, but they do not concern themselves with vocational or job training, or industrial training of adults. And institutions such as vocational training centers are established and maintained by the governors (Prefecture) or the mayors (Municipality). Private schools and vocational training centers are very important educational institutions from the point of view of life-long education or learning as well as public schools and public cultural and educational institutions. Here we have an urgent task how to organize educational administration to systemize life-long learning. And there is a problem who should take the initiative to this task, the Board of Education or the Governor (the Mayor).

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This paper attempts to clarify the problems of the ad-hoc Educational Reform Council's recommendations concerning the revitalization of the boards of education by reconsidering the meaning of the term "revitalization". 1. The revitalization of the boards of education is as follows; to raise their abilities by finding the way and mean for their present institution and to activate their functions more than ever. 2. The problems of the ad-hoc Educational Reform Council's recommendations concerning the revitalization of the boards of education are as follows; (1) The Council did not recommend the adjustment of the law and institutions necessary for the boards of education to activate their functions. (2) The Council did not recommend, especially in the last report, any plans for "a reconsideration of the division of work between the central government and the local authorities" necessary for the boards of education to raise their abilities. (3) The Council did not revive completely the original ideas of introducing the board of education system in its six recommendations to revitalize them.

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The Provisional Council on Educational Reform has proposed that the educational reform in Japan necessiates the great activation of boards of education (fulfillments of their function). "Activation" means that a particular administrative organ or system performs satisfactorily its own administrative function along its administrative purpose. Considering the activation, we should be on the viewpoints as follows: the first one is the activation of the consciousness of persons concerned with educational problems (inhabitants, teachers and school administrative officers), and the second is that of the organization (fulfillment of its administrative compitency, and the activation of everyday administrative activities). The purpose of this paper is to discuss administrative means for the activation of local boards of education on the basis of findings on opinion research from 922 superintendents, mainly from the viewpoint of the fulfillment of administrative function. Their viewpoints were found to be mostly consistent with.the contents of the new bill proposed by the Education Ministry, but some problems remain to be solved with intimate cooperation between the head of local government and the local board of education in relation to both their status and the allocation of competency.

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The purpose of this paper is to analyze factors affecting the role performance of board members at the municipal level and to present a profile of desirable active type of board members who may contribute to the revitalization of the board of education. The data to be analyzed are based on empirical research aiming at understanding the realities of lay control. The research was excuted from June to August 1986, and was designed for the purpose of making clear what interrelationships exist among the following sets of variables concerning board members. The fundamental sets of variables are; 1. the characteristics of the communities in which boards of education are located 2. the characteristics of board of education as a whole 3. board members' personal attributes 4. the characteristics of boards members' recruitment 5. board members' socio-psychological characteristics 6. board members' role definition and attitude toward leadership 7. board members' information behavior 8. board members' role performance The data were collected through a mail-survey of a nation-wide sample of 1500 board members and superintendents of 300 boards of education at the municipal level in Hokkaido, Tokyo Metropolis and 11 Prefectures. An analysis of the data found the following variables relevant to role performance of the board member. 1. level of education 2. teaching experience 3. willingness to accept the appointment to the office of the board member 4. the type of motivation for the office of the board member 5. recognized qualities of skills and abilities as criteria for appointment to the office of the board member 6. perception of the community's expectations for the board of education 7. a sense of alienation from the office of the board member 8. role definition and attitude toward leadership 9. information behavior 10. the pattern of board of education meetings On the basis of these results, it is concluded that we may characterize the profile of the most active and desirable educatinal board member as follows; 1. He is motivated to accept the appointment to the office and posesses a clear sense of the educational problems in his community. 2. He keenly perceives his community's expectations of the board of education. 3. He is highly interested in educational "externa" to be solved according to local interests. 4. He attaches much importance to that aspect of his role which is related to the representation of the community demands. 5. He actively searched information not only from his colleagues but also from the general public, community leaders and school people. 6. He is a member of that type of the board of education which is filled with a sense of mission and responsibility, symbolized by lively board of education meetings, as the agency to make local education better.

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Every country has not only accumulated the achievements of its educational research practice, but also has placed importance on bilateral/multilateral cooperation with other countries in educational development. However, it is difficult to leave all the research activities exclusively in the hands of government because varied phases are included in educational researches.-theoretical or practical; short-term or long-term. Here we investigate the cases of Britain, France and the Soviet Union in terms of governmental involvement in educational research activities. In order to see the current situation educational research in Britain, we analyze about 1800 projects on list of NFER(1980-1983), and then clarify the major institutions and areas of research, etc. It is the traditional pattern of formulation of policy and decision making in this country that they first establish advisory committees, which carry out investigation and research on educational issues, and suggest policies based on their studies. It is also one of the features of the British system that the research achievements and suggestions are put to policy-formation as well as practice willingly through both formal and informal channels. In France, there are many on-going educational research activities. National educational research organizations have played the major role in both theoretical and practical research in education. Compared with those in Japan and United States, however, educational research activities at unversities are not organized efficiently. Generally speaking, achivements of educational research are accepted positively. Adminstrators tend to regard those research achievements they can use to satisfy immediate needs as more important. However, without long-term view and fundamental objective approach any research can not be highly evaluated academically. Judging from this viewpoint, educational research activities in French universities and academic societies are not active as those in Japan. On the other hand, many specialized educational research insititutions have accumulated practical studies closely related to classrooms. In the Soviet Union, there are the Soviet Union Education Science Academy, universities, and research institutions. In addition, in the local cities and counties, there are "cabinet" (teacher training centers) with similar function to those of research institutions. The Soviet Union Education Science Academy is involved in scientific studies on fundamental issues on education and engaged in the most crucial matters related to organizing national educational system. They study cases at experimental schools or by prominent teachers are widely presented to others to share. The Central Committee of the Soviet Union Communist Party held in February 1988 adopted a recommendation, on the "Perestroika" on education and suggested that the Soviet Union Education Science Academy should be placed under the control of several ministries instead of under the single Ministry of Education.

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Administration by law is a important principle of administration in Japan's post-World War II period. This principle means that administration should be enforced on the bases of laws(horitsu), orders (meirei), local ordinances (jorei), rules (kisoku) and regulations (kitei). Both the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture Establishment Law (article 6) and the law concerning Organization and Functions of Local Education Administration (article 25) stipulate that educational administration must be enforced under the principle of administration by law. The Constitution of Japan provides that local public entities shall have the right to enact their own ordinances within the law (article 94). And, in fact many LOEs have been enacted. So far as I know, however, remarkable studies on the results of LOE are few, except those studies on the so-called "Quasi-public Election Ordinance of board members in NAKANO ward." Based on such a consideration, I have studied LOE for several years. In this paper, I attempt to clarify the present situation of LOE, to point out the major features or tendencies of them in relation to national laws and orders and some major issues of LOEs. The contents of this paper are the following; 1 The present situation and major features of LOE. (1) The conception of LOE. (2) The national laws as the foundation of LOE. (3) The present situation and major features of LOE. 2 Some major issues of LOE. (1) Issues of local ordinances concerning school establishment. (2) Issues of local ordinances in regard to the protection and healthy development of the juvenile. (3) Issues relate to "the quasi-public election ordinances of board members in NAKANO ward". (4) The relationship between local ordinances and teacher's salary. 3 Conclusion.

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With the complication and diversification of the national life, and with a greater dependence of the individual on the nation state systems, the role of educational administration has become increasingly important. Just now our nation state is grappling with the reformation of education. Under the present conditions of this educational reform, the administration's duties become more and more serious. The educational reform that is progressing now is mainly enforced by an enactment of laws or regulations. This, so-called control in advance is, of course, an ordinary and reasonable procedure of educational administration. Simultaneously, the control by the administrative authorities themselves is also indispensable for educational reform. That is to say, on the one hand the execution of the educational reform may be ensured by the control of both the National Diet (legislative power) and of the Courts (judicial power); on the other hand it may be ensured by the administrative power itself. Under the present conditions, the analyses by the administrative power itself has been rather effective and accurate. This paper pays attention to Administrative Inspection as a system of administrative examination. In this paper I will take a bird's-eye view of the Inspection System, introduce some cases of "educational inspections", point out some issues, and discuss the meaning of this system. Hitherto, many articles on educational administration have treated the matter from the "outside", but I will treat the matters-the merits and the demerits-from "inside" of the administration. The educational administration should comply with the people's needs, and more educational reform in the right direction.In my view it is useful for the proper operation of the educational administration to point out the issues and the meaning of the Administrative Inspection System or "Educational Inspection" as the inner control of education.

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In our country, studies of American textbook administration have mainly laid stress on the level-comparison of specified matters in each state, or on clearing up fundamental legal issues in the educational cases concerned. However, we have not made an earnest histrical study on the expansion process of textbook administration in each state of America. Therefore, this paper, part of the above-mentioned historical study, attempts to clarify circumstances of the organization and roles of the California State Curriculum Commission, to consider the significance of the establishment of the Commission, with particular reference to the expansion process of the California state textbook administration. This paper consists of the following sections: Introduction I The background of the establishment of the State Curriculum Commission: 1 Problems of the California textbook administration prior to the establishment of the Commission 2 The development of curriculum studies in California State II The roles and the significance of the State Curriculum Commission: 1 The job specifications and the personnel organization of the Commission 2 The significance of the lawsuit on the adoptioon of music textbooks Conclusion Immediate factors facilitating the establishment of the State Curriculum Commission were "Investigation concerning the curriculum of California primary schools" led by the Superintendent of Public Instruction, and his positive influence on the legislation based on the findings of this investigation. The establishment and activities of the Commission led to the resolution of a few problems, that is, recognizing the various viewpoints of educationalists who are not a part of the state educational administration staff and achieving an improvement in the quality of textbook content by the California textbook administration. The State Supreme Court established the State Educational Board's legal right to purchase completed books from publishers in the lawsuit on the adoption of music textbooks. This decision meant that the State Educational Board could adopt a standard policy attaching great significance to the quality of textbook content rather than to the cost of a given textbook. It also meant that the State Curriculum Commission could continue to recommend quality textbooks and take into consideration the opinions of educationalists. The State Curriculum Commission was a highly motivated body which attempted to maintain the merits of state centralized textbook administration and at the same time to reflect the views, as far as possible, of both local educational authorities and school teachers. The establishment of the Commission was significant in the development of state centralized textbook administration in California.

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With the "third wave" of immigration into the United States, public education has become particularly important to achieve the means of adjusting and uniting the peoples of various social and cultural backgrounds into their adopted "new" society. This article addresses the educational law issues raised by the inflow of undocumented/illegal Mexican children with (their) parent (s) into the United States. The analysis focuses on the 1975 Texas policy of denying undocumented alien children a free public education the subsequent challenges against it, and refrects on the educational status of alien children. The contents are as follows; Introduction 1 The U.S. immigration policy and Mexican immigrants (1) Influx of Mexican immigrants into the United States (2) Undocumented/illegal alien children 2 Legislation against undocumented alien children in Texas (1) Legislative background of TEX. EDUC. CODE ANN. §21.031 (2) Local policy on undocumented alien children (3) Lawsuits against schooldistricts'decisions to exclude undocumented children 3 Undocumented children's right to education (1) The United States Supreme Courtdecision; Plyler v. Doe (2) The ambivalent meaning of the Plyler case Conclusion * Support for the research and writing of this article was provided by the Japan-United States Friendship Commission and the Ministry of Education, Science and Culture (1987 Grant in Aid for research).

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In recent decades, there has been a vast amount of parent and citizen participation in the American public schools. Various forms of participation exist, but advisory councils became the predominant mode in the 1970s because the Congress passed acts which mandated parent advisory councils (PAC). A typical example is Title I of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act. This paper aims to clarify the problems in implementing parent participation requirements of Title I of the ESEA. Contained in this paper are: a brief description of changes in parent participation concept and its backgrounds ; a historical overview of the development of Title I parent participation mandates ; an examination of the problems of parent advisory councils. Among these problems are: (1) unrepresentative selection procedures for PAC members, (2) infrequent meetings and domination of council meeting by Title I officials or principals, (3) confusion about the role of the PAC, (4) non-compliance with Title I laws and regulations, (5) the professional norms of many school officials who consider parents incompetent in educational matters, (6) insufficient information and training for PAC members, (7) a lack of leadership and concern by the U.S. Office of Education. As a brief summary, it can be said that the mandates for parent participation in Title I have tardily been strengthened because of the resistance of the educational profession ; and the parent advisory councils did not work well as vehicles to affect Title I educational policies and decisions.

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The aim of this study is to clarify the two basic ideas-equality and excellence in higher education-underlying the laws of California Junior Colleges (JC) in 1917 and in 1921 and to analyze the mutual relationship between these two ideas. Before examining the ideas which led to the laws of 1917 and 1921, it seems better to introduce some of their important provisions. The 1917 law repealed the 1907 law (the first JC law in the United States as well as in California) and remedied some of its weaknesses. It provided for state financial support for JC ((1)), provided the legal basis for the development of terminal education programs in JC ((2)), and required the local high school district to have an assessed valuation of at least three million dollars ((3)). The 1921 law further strengthened the provision (1) and (3) of the 1917 law ((1)',(3)') and newly added the provisions for JC districts of three types ((4)), and for the affiliation program between the University of California and JC ((5)). These laws provided a firm foundation for the future growth of California JC. By analyzing the causes of the drives for the passage of these laws, we can recognize the two ideas underlying the process of the new legislation. One was the idea of equalizing higher educational opportunities in California school districts by promoting the growth of JC in local communities. This idea was mainly held by the JC advocates in the local high school and JC districts, and resulted in the provision (1), (1)' and (4). The other is to seek academic excellence in the university by allowing only the transfer of students from JC who could satisfy the high academic standards of the university. This idea is mainly represented in the university presidents and the faculty members and resulted in the provisions (2), (3), (3)' and (5). How about the relationship between the above two ideas or forces? In order to make it clear, it is appropriate to examine the differences in attitudes between the two forces toward provisions (2), (3)' and (5). As a result of this, we may conclude that there was a conflict of academic standards versus equal access, of excellence versus equality. Speaking more in detail, the university supported the stratification of higher education and preferred to control JC for its academic purposes, while the local JC advocates hoped to lessen the gap of higher educational opportunities geographically and preferred to keep local control over JC.

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Today, the traditional teacher probation system has become firmly established in West Germany. Students who want to be teachers will receive a formal education for at least 3 or 4 years in universities and for about 2 years during a probation's period. On the other hand, there are so many "unemployed teachers". They can not be adopted in spite of possessing a license and their willingness to teach. The purpose of this paper is to clarify the characteristics of the teacher education system in West Germany from the view of the "teacher unemployment" problem. Analyzing the teacher education system and facts around it lead to the following conclusins as follows: (1) Teacher candidates need to pass a First State Examination after studying in the university and a Second State Examination after probation's period. Both tests do not function to select some formal teachers. (2) Since 1980, because of the reduction in the number of employed teachers, new students or classes for teacher education have continued decreasing. That also creates a reduction in successful candidates in the First State Examination and the Second State Examination. The number of successful candidate is mainly determined by the number of new student in university. (3) While the reduction of the number of employed teachers, the number of teacher applicants has been continuously increasing. The rate of employment has been declining. That means there has been an even greater growth in"unemployed teachers". (4) Because of the sharp drop in the number of employed teachers, the average age of school teachers has been ascending and the rate of young teachers has declined relatively. Some predictions say that there will be a shortage of teachers in the future. (5) Persons concerned at the university maintain that a big increase in the number of employed teachers has to be realized. They have some proposals for increasing the demand for teachers, and one of them is the reform of the probation's system.

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In this paper, the authors try to formulate the problems that surround the punishment of teachers in public school systems and to analyze the historical and institutional structure of punishment of teachers in Japan before World War II. The problem of punishment of teachers should be seen as one of penality within the public education systems, that is to say, the use by the state of punishment or the threat of punishment as a sanction, or means of controlling teachers. On this basis, one would expect that the problem should occupy a very important position in research on public education, school systems, and public administration of education. Since no studies concerning punishment of teachers have so far appeared, however, this paper breaks new ground. One of the major problems that arise from the punishment of teachers is that of judical remedy in cases of unjust penalization, for in a modern state the rights and the status of teachers punished or dismissed by authority must be guaranteed by due-procedure. For the reasons mentioned above, we have attempted to analyze the interrelations between punishment imposed by administrative authority and remedial countermeasures sought by the judiciary. A further concern of this paper is the integration of methods of educational research concerning educational policy, educational administration and the courts and the public schools. Hereafter, we hope to analyze the historical structure of the punishment of teachers and to examine the problems concerning penality in public education in Japan since World War II.

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