The theory on "the right on education of the people," which divides educational matters into two spectrums: the internal and the external, and positions educational administration as the leading force in improving educational conditions, can be deemed as having been the principal theoretical framework taken up in the recent Educational Administration research. With regards to this theoretical framework which takes issues on the role of the state in public education, two arguments in contraposition have been antithetically debated: the theoretical framework questioning the state's character itself instead of disputing on the pros and cons of the state's involvement in education, and the theoretical framework pursuing on how to implement and govern educational administration in educationally effective approaches under the state's given positional authority . In response to the question of "what is the study of educational administration?," my succinct explanation is that the study of educational administration is a theoretical approach conceptualized through school board activities. This is not to say that the study of educational administration is to benefit actual practice. According to Foucault's schema positioning that non-articulated practice generates an environment for discourse, school board activities is an environment for the study of educational administration. The school board system of the United States is based on a spirit of idealist philosophy postulating that educational consensus is attainable among citizens who stand in opposition with general political affairs. This notion led to entail another idealist philosophy validating that, by being selected to serve as a school board member, the individual citizen will experience taking on government duties and hence have the opportunity to enhance public awareness in being a member of a democratic society. Turning to Japan, the most impending deficiency revolving around today's debate on the school board system lies in failing to face the significance of this idealist philosophy exemplified by the school board system.

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This paper examines the efficacy of the system used to determine national government's share of compulsory education costs after the trilateral reforms promoted by central government There are also substantial contributions from the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications and six major local groups. This paper aims to propose a division of labor between central and local governments and a financial system to support this division in compulsory education. The current progress of the trilateral reforms seems to deviate from the focus of the reforms with regard to the independence and soundness of financing from local government. Central government gives top priority to transfer sources of tax to local governments and to a reduction of state liability and subsidies in order to secure sources of revenue. As a result, the disparity of general revenue sources has increased among local governments. In order to correct this situation, the central government delays reform of local tax-allocation methods. The most important issue is to postpone the solution of problems of local tax-allocation methods that impair the independence and soundness of financing from local government because of the above situation. Based on the awareness of this problem, this paper demonstrates the following analysis and proposes the establishment an education-specific subsidy system that would ensure a "national minimum" for compulsory education. (1)The current local tax-allocation methods provide local governments with both a revenue source guarantee function to ensure a "national minimum" and a finance adjustment function to correct tax revenue disparity among local governments. Because arbitrary amalgamation of these two functions continues, these methods have acquired strong characteristics as policy incentive subsidies to develop local economies and promote business conditions since 1985 and the amount of subsidy has skyrocketed. (2) Because the current financial crisis in local governments resulted from this mechanism of tax allocation and its operation, it is desirable to establish systems assuring revenue sources and financial adjustments to guarantee a new "national minimum" by separating the revenue source guarantee function from the financial adjustment function and abolishing the current tax allocation system and the national government's share of compulsory education costs. (3) Specifically, this paper proposes the establishment of an education-specific subsidy system that would ensure a "national minimum" for compulsory education. Consequently, central government sets the standard of a "national minimum" for compulsory education and provides local governments with the necessary revenue sources as comprehensive subsidies. Local governments can implement the creative operation of compulsory education based on the "national minimum." Consequently, it becomes possible to clarify the roles and responsibilities of the central and local governments.

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The Japanese Constitution defines the popular sovereignty and local control of education in order to pursue the fundamental right to education. It is also provided in the Article 10 of the Fundamental Law of Education that education shall not be subject to improper control, but it shall be directly responsible to the whole people. Under these legal circumstances Japanese school board system, which is somewhat autonomous from the municipal governing agencies such as mayors and municipal assembly, has been introduced since 1948. Does local control of education work well under the current school board system? Local governments assume direct and highly regulatory responsibility for change. During the decade of the nineties, choice was added to this mix as an important factor in school governance reform. Then political scientists have found the school board less responsive to the entire community. Some argue that boards should be abolished or removed from the educational policy process because they block the reforms. They say that local control by school boards was little more than popular mythology. To think about these problems we try to make the concept "local control of education" clear and practical. The governance function in local control of public schools is very central to achieving children's rights to education. Educational governance is a complex term, covering both political and administrative dimensions of educational decision making. The concept refers to administrative and professional authority. But governance authority should be exercised through establishment of goals and objectives and use of administrative power, not through direct engagement in the teaching and learning process. Then we can say that "local control of education" consists the following three elements: First is the political educational governing process through people's representative government such as boards of education which make educational policies and regulations; Second is the administrative and managerial educational governing process through educational administrative professionals who provide instructional leadership for all educational programs within the board policies; Third is the teachers' and other professionals' education practice which is directly responsible to the student learning. To realize this notion of "local control of education," we must pursue three tough research and practical problems: How to develop municipal ordinances, rules and regulations for the full realization of the human right to education; How to make superintendents and principals improve professional knowledge and skills enough to develop a comprehensive educational plan in the municipal level and a school building level; how to make the teachers' practice leadership more influential and effective in the whole process of political and administrative educational governing process.

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The purposes of this essay are (1)to clarify the characteristics in policies about reform of organization and management of public schools in Japan ("organizational reform policies"), (2)to analyze the problems and limitations of the policies from a perspective of organizational theory, and (3) to examine about an alternative principle to reform the organization and management. Three aspects of the policies are (1)the adoption of methods of private sector management into schools, (2) the introduction of school evaluation system, and (3) restructuring management organization of schools. The characteristics of these aspects are (1)to enhance centralization and stratification inside schools, and (2) to emphasize planning and result management. These characteristics contrast markedly with existing views of school organization such as loose-coupling theory. There may be the following problems with the policies. First, the image of school organization in policies does not meet complex organizational environments and task with which schools confront. Secondly, the policies lack considerations of actual conditions inside school organization. It is suggested that difficulties faced with school organization are increase of teachers' isolation and increase of difficulty for teachers to educate pupils. The policies are not responsible to these actual conditions of schools. Base on these actual conditions of school, it is necessary to make a concept of school organization and management in a different way from the policies. It is not a theory and practice of organization and management to constrain professional autonomy of teachers, but an alternative theory and practice of school organization and management to collaboratively facilitate and integrate autonomy.

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The purpose of this study is to examine how the Meiji government created the code which aimed at teacher's control and developed a teacher policy in the term of preparing public education. An historical archetype in teacher control policy is extracted through historical analysis of the code formation. And its structure is made clear. Attention was paid to the "conduct" imposed on the teacher, and verified that "conduct" was the code which was inseparable from the government of the nation-atate. Then, the process whereby "conduct" became the law aimed at teacher's control and functioned was examined. The teacher's necessary condition of "conduct" was grasped as a code in order to watch his /her performance in the beginning. This point was confirmed using two cases, the senate conference and the teacher policy of Nagano Prefecture. However, "conduct" was in fact being formed as a code that prohibited a teacher's political activity, which reflected on the development of the civil rights movement. This study was meant to examine what role the Ministry of the Interior took in the creation of the teacher control code. It built up a system that watched people's behavior. That system covered not only immorality but also offenses against national affairs from the viewpoint of the maintenance of public order. As a result, the people who were concerned with the civil rights movement (jiyuminken movement) were judged not on the basis of an offense against national affairs but as "misconduct". In such a policy, consciousness was formed that the act of making a protest against the government was "misconduct". In other words, "conduct" was reconstructed and functioned as a code that was applied to not only immorality but also to political activity. Though it is a regulation code, "conduct" is being received as an everyday standard to confirm deviate behavior and to exclude it. Therefore, "conduct" made it possible to strengthen the teacher control system. To verify this point, articles of Shinano-Mainichi were taken up, and the related structure of the newspaper, police, and the educational administration were pointed out. As "conduct" imposed on the teacher was commonly stopped at the level of the society, it was never studied as a government idea. However, it is confirmed that "conduct" is inseparable from the government of the nation-state given the above considerations. The nation-state asked government officials, including teachers, to lead the conduct of people as a "standard" or "model". In other words, national agents were asked for both self-control and other-control, and its behavior was clearly directed. An individual style of control by this "conduct" code can thus be found.

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In this paper, the role the prefectural board of education plays in teacher personnel affairs of a public school was analyzed. A survey was conducted for personnel specializing in teacher personnel affairs of the board of education of all prefectures. It was shown that there is a difference in the range of office work for the prefectural education board for every prefecture. Therefore, this paper showed clearly what kinds of factors explain such a difference using the results of econometric analysis. As a result of this analysis, it became clear that the ratio of the number of the personnel of a prefectural education board, local branches, and local education authority is, first, various and, it became clear, second, that the difference in such personnel composition has influenced the work distribution between a prefectural education board, local branches, and local education authority. That is, the role of the adjustment of requests about personnel affairs taken from local education authorities changed according to differences in personnel composition. Moreover, the prefectural education board which collects the information about personnel affairs directly, and the prefectural education board which performs only adjustment of information were divided by the difference in personnel composition. These results showed that personnel arrangement needed to be improved, in order to weaken participation of the prefectural education board to the teacher personnel affairs of a public school and to strengthen participation of local branches and local education authority. Until now, the consolidation of municipalities etc. has been pointed out as a means which raises autonomous administration capability. However, the analysis result in this paper did not show that a consolidation of municipalities demonstrates an effect unconditionally. Rather, even if a consolidation of municipalities was not performed, it was shown that an effect can be mentioned by the improvement of personnel arrangement. A future subject is advancing research which focused on local branches, and research which focused on the personnel's man-power development.

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Delegation of power from the central government to local governments or each public compulsory school is now proceeding. The Ministry of Education, therewith, has emphasized "participation" of residents and parents in community. In this article, such a situation is called educational reform with decentralization. Educational reform is interesting because an austere fiscal policy is included in this decentralization and residents participation included in education reform makes an especially powerful impact on the school. From the financial perspective, this reform may benefit from allocating a limited educational budget efficiently thorough participation of residents and parents in public schools. On the other hand, residents and parents may be used as a cheap manpower to compensate for the lack of educational resources. From a political perspective, this reform may be a good opportunity to regenerate a social network in the community and empower residents, parents and children. On the other hand, this reform may stir up conflicts between residents. In this article, methods of residents and parent's cooperative management of a public school and children's education which ensure the diversity of residential and parental membership in "participation" are examined. First, in education reform with decentralization, which emphasizes the character of parents and inhabitants as "cooperative managers," the features of recent public schools which improve the adaptability to "club goods" as set up by James Buchanan is established. Therewith, it is pointed out that the limit of the "club goods" concept is in the assumption of "homogeneous membership." In theories of social science, discussion of the assumption of "homogeneous membership" is maturing. Putnam, who insists that "participation of parents and community to school improvement" is important for education in public schools and children, emphasizes the importance of "active membership." On the other hand Selle and Stromsnes criticize Putnam because a "passive member" is important to keep political pluralism as a basis of democracy. Such discussion about "membership" is important to enable us to consider how to treat various members in collective decision-making about the cooperative management of public schools and children's education. Second, quantitative feature of "active members" and "passive members" of public elementary school parents, differences of expectation level in schools between these two membership groups and factors that influence membership are grasped. As a result of this analysis, it is clear that 19.2% of parents are "active members" (205 parents) and that 25.4% are "passive members" (270 parents). Moreover, it turns out that the "passive members" have a high concern with public schools and children's education, almost at the same level as "active members." Thirdly, the method of cooperative management of public schools and in education in terms of various memberships is considered, including treatment of "passive members."

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The purpose of this paper is to clarify the movement of professionalization in American teacher unions, by structural and legal analysis of the Peer Assistance and Review Program (PARP) directed by the National Education Association of the United States (NEA) and the American Federation of Teachers (AFT). Since the 1960s, while teacher unions had "Teacher Militancy" and collective bargaining for their strategy to protect teachers' rights, they also developed adversarial labor-and-management relations with their school districts. Therefore, most of the educational reform agendas proposed by school administrators were not acceptable for them. Hence, it was said that while collective bargaining has improved the working conditions of teachers, this has made school administration more bureaucratic and closed a gate for community participation. However, recently, the NEA and the AFT have changed their strategy under the concept of "new unionism" and built up closer cooperation with school administration, declaring they should be responsible to the quality of public education and the competence of teachers. The PARP is one of the most important policies under the strategy of new unionism, and the NEA and the AFT published the handbook on the PARP to enhance this program through their state and local affiliates. The handbook indicates that the purpose of this program is improving teachers' quality, not terminating teachers, and that the program should be managed by joint committee composed by both school administrators and union's delegates. We can see the structural characteristics that the program presumes the unions' right to collective bargaining and largely depends on the school administrations' role as personnel managers. This characteristics also can be seen in the legal issues caused by implementation of the PARP. The first legal concern is the bargaining unit status of rank-and-file teachers who participate in the program, because evaluative functions could make consulting teachers supervisory employees and could result in his or her exclusion from the teacher bargaining unit. The second concern is regarding the unions' duty of fair representation that a local union which is recognized as an exclusive collective bargaining representative owes to the bargaining unit teachers who are involved in the PARP. To solve these issues, the NEA and the AFT depend on the existing collective bargaining and school boards' role as their employer. It can be said that the professionalization under the PARP would not release teacher unions from the responsibility to protect the teachers' working conditions and job security through collective bargaining with school boards. From the analysis on the PARP, this paper points out that the attainment of the right to bargain collectively and bread-and-butter issues are necessary conditions for the professionalization of teacher unions, and that teacher unions aim to enhance teaching professionalization through participating into the personnel management of school administration, contradicting to recent educational reforms which intend to transfer administrative authority from school districts to the school site level. These findings indicate a new relationship between teacher unions and school administration, and the new issues of what the authority of school administration should be and how it should work to enhance teaching professionalism.

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The purpose of this paper aims to clarify the possibility of process to maintain the quality of administration as to the social education. A partnership of private enterprise with the public sector could bring the successful results in both hardware as well as the contents of social education. On the way of my study, the focus is put on the process of innovating the public library with the project of Private Finance Initiative (PFI). Some examples in Japan and in UK are examined in this paper. The first case is Hackney Technology & Learning Centre in London, which shows a good relation particularly between the leading and its subcontract private company for the building maintenance. The second example is Patcham Library and Community Centre, Brighton which has kept close contact to school around. The last one is the first attempted plan for the public library (Kuwana Media Live), which is managed mainly be the private company through PFI project. The advantages of such partnership could be understood from three points of view. Firstly, it is the most effective process to decrease the cost of services, and at the same time it would be useful to maintain the quality of services. Thirdly, some proposals or useful idea presented by private company can be refered while the public sector provides necessary service. The administrative authority concerning social education should be responsible to accomplish these targets anytime.The most important aspect of the function of public sector with a close cooperation with private company is the control of the quality of necessary services and in such process fixing the field of the competence should have the first priority and also how the public sector effectively can supervise the performance of private enterprise must affect such quality of services. The process of this function can be classified into five stages, fixing the target among a lot of requests, secondly, choosing the sort of task, thirdly, Monitoring, fourthly, supplemental process to fill the shortage of services and finally to check the effects of coordination. Some conclusion can be drawn as follows. The public authority is recommended to reduce its competence to the minimum when it involves fixing target, because some useful proposal could be spoiled if the power of authority would strong. On the contrary, it would be recommended to commit to the stage of choosing the task which relates the quality of service very closely. Moreover, public authority is expected to check the process of actual performance and the contents of services regularly. Such standing points of view could contribute for the current social educational administration in Japan.

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Recently, the need for residents' participation has been discussed enthusiastically in academic discourse and the mass media. This means that a change in the form of democracy has occurred, with creating a "partnership society" intended by this change. This "partnership society" has as its base the ideal that administration transfers its rights to residents and that residents are equal to administration. This ideal includes certain unclear elements, however. As the ideal is carried out, great obstructions will occur. To overcome these, we need to examine the problems that we will confront in carrying out the ideal. Therefore, this paper examines local governments in which attempts to create a new form of democracy based on a partnership between administration and residents has been made. The author also pays attention to officers in the local government who are connected with carrying out the ideal. The author analyzes their thinking and attitude toward residents' participation and considers problems that will occur during the process of this ideal being carried out. This is why the author observed the method of planning programs based on residents' participation at B public hall in A city. In addition, the author interviewed three officers there. The results of the research are as follows: The officers didn't equate themselves with residents, but had the following thoughts and attitudes. (1) They thought that they needed to preserve a qualitative "difference" between residents and themselves. (2) They thought that they needed to preserve a definite "detachment" between the residents and themselves. (3) They took a cynical approach and attitude toward residents' participation after experiencing many difficulties to preserve "difference" and "detachment". They gave up even their original belief that they should adopt residents' opinions and thought that it was only natural that only administration's opinions should be adopted. We note the following from these results: If we leave these conditions as it is, the partnership between administration and residents will fall off. Therefore, the author presents the following three problems that need to be addressed in order to overcome these conditions. Administration and residents should overcome these problems together. (1)It is necessary to establish the guidelines and divide roles between the administration and residents. (2) It is necessary to provide training for staffs and residents who participate and adjust for differences of opinion. (3) It is necessary to improve the techniques for evaluating policies objectively. By using these techniques, we need to calculate whether the systems of residents' participation will be able to maintain "impartiality" and "neutrality" and how high they can achieve policy objectives.

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