Drastic decentralization reform has been put into practice recently throughout the whole governmental system in Japan. This is regarded as the third wave of reforms following those after the Meiji Restoration and World War II. This decentralization movement began from the establishment of the Decentralization Promotion Act of 1995. In accordance with this statute the Committee for the Promotion of Decentralization was set up to deliberate decentralization plans, which the Cabinet should prepare, and to give specific policy advice for those plans. The Committee submitted five recommendations to the Prime Minister from 1996 to 1998. Based on these recommendations, the Cabinet put together a comprehensive plan for decentralization in May 1998. A package bill concerning the Arrangement of Related Laws for the Promotion of Decentralization is now under deliberation as of June during the regular session of the Diet in 1999. This paper is intended as an investigation of the features of the decentralization reform and its effects on the educational administration system from the view point of intergovernmental relations (central-local relationship). The most influential and widespread change in this reform is that the system of "agency-assigned functions" (kikan-inin-jimu) was abolished. When a local government exercises functions that are "agency-assigned" by the central government, the local chief executive becomes an agent of the central government subject to the supervision of the competent minister. In its First Recommendation Report (1996), the Committee for the Promotion of Decentralization described the system of agency-assigned functions as "the core of centralized administrative system in our country" and recommended the total abolition of this system. The recommendation met with stiff resistance from almost all ministries. However, the Committee eventually succeeded in abolishing it. The number of agency-assigned functions has reached 561 items that are listed in the Appendix of the Local Autonomy Act. All of these items are being reorganized and divided according to the new classification of administrative affairs. There are 34 items that the Boards of Education have to carry out as "agency-assigned functions," as listed in Appendix 3 (24 items assigned to each Prefecture's Board of Education) and Appendix 4(10 items assigned to the Board of Education of each city, town, and village). Almost 60 per cent of these functions are to be changed into "autonomous affairs" (jichi-jimu). It means that local authorities have a great possibility of autonomy on the occasion of decision-making. These trends are very significant in promoting the trend of decentralization, yet at the same time, it is believed that the fundamental characteristics of the Japanese educational administration system in the post-World War II era will never change. As pointed out in an earlier paper (1995), the educational administration system can be recognized as a particular type (decentralization-interfusion) judging from intergovernmental relations. Some progress may indeed be made in this movement of (decentralization), but the predominant characteristic of (interfusion) will likely continue after the reform.

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There were three reforms of school management after World War II. First, the board of education system was established to decentralize authorities to prefectural and municipal level. Second, educational administration has been centralized since 1956. Third, education policies have pointed out the importance of self-management in schools, in particular, since the 1990s. Nowadays, the government tries to implement administration reform to realize decentralized public system. This reform drove the Ministry of Education to introduce Self-Managing Schools. The main idea of the third reform is to decentralize authorities and responsibilities for curriculum, personnel and finance to schools. Principal leadership, school accountability and parents' participation are also important. This reform changed the fundamentals of school management from administrative control to self-management. This is thus different from educational administration since 1956. Self-Managing Schools can be realized with discretion. A Curriculum Council proposed the enhancement of discretion in curriculum. General Studies is a good example. However, schools need the capability of developing curricula by using discretion effectively. Experts in curricula, called curriculum coordinators, will be essential. Discretion in personnel is also important to link staff structure with education programs. Teacher allocation should be made based on the principal's requests. Budgeting should also be decentralized to schools. The framework for resource allocation to schools should be used as a basic standard for funding formulae. Then, school-based budgeting should be introduced so that schools are able to link their own budget with staff structure and curriculum. Principals of Self-Managing Schools need to have high capability, vision and strategies so that they can use discretion for effective management and accountability. People with high management skills and leadership should be appointed principals regardless of his or her career background. It is a good idea to establish Master of Education Programs for school leaders that provide qualifications to be principals. The master programs provide future principals with opportunities to develop management skills. Regarding decision-making in schools, it has been said that democratic decision-making should be made through staff meetings. Democratic decision-making respects teachers' opinions rather than a principal's intention. As a result the principal feels hindered from making leadership decisions and implementing the school's management plans. In Self-Managing Schools, on the contrary, democratic decision-making is not appropriate and principals should be chief executive officers in the decision-making process, because the principal's leadership is essential to make strategies and motivate teachers seeking for accountability. Certainly staff meetings are important to derive opinions and ideas from teachers. However, it is better to give principals authority to make the final decision so that they can be true leaders. In addition, leadership by steering committees and senior teachers is important to implement the strategies. Self-Managing Schools must be accountable to not only the Board of Education but also parents. How schools use decentralized authorities, whether schools implemented the strategies, and what sort of outcomes schools brought will be reported and checked by parents. Parents will be able to be school observers. School observers will check management practices, discuss and come to agreement with the principal to assure accountability. The third reform will overcome the centralized educational administration. The range of the reform is not still enough. The Board of Education should not control schools. Then, schools will be held fully accountable. Theoretically, only national policies are required for Self-Managing Schools

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The legitimacy of educational administration in Japan is now in crisis. That crisis will surely cause reforms of local education administration. The legitimacy of public administration in general consists of three elements: representation, responsiveness, and the raison d'etre of public administration. One of the administrative responsiblities is accountability, which is based on responsiveness. It is closely connected with both representation and the 'inner check' (C. Friedrich) as another administrative responsibility. In addition, accountability also has a procedural element and therefore relates to administrative procedures. The analysis of my paper is focused on the aims and contents of administrative accountability in education, especially for local school boards. The items are as follows; 1. Crisis of legitimacy in local school boards 2. The 1998 reform plan of 'Chuo Kyoiku Shingikai' as national educational commission and accountability 3 . Revival of adminstrative control in education 4. Responsibility and accountability 5 . Accountability in local school boards

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The purposes of this paper are to examine assurance of due process procedures and to discuss procedural justice in teacher dismissals in the United States of America in order to learn how to justify decisions through procedures for contemporary educational administration. After a teacher acquires tenure status, dismissal is legal only for certain causes and certain procedures. The Teacher Tenure Act specifies the procedure that must be followed to remove a teacher. These procedures are "sacramental requisites" that must be strictly followed before a hearing, during the hearing, and after the hearing. If the school board does not follow the prescribed statutory procedures, its act in dismissing a teacher, no matter how deserved the dismissal is, may be void. Assurance of due process procedures in teacher dismissals is as follows : Before the dismissal, the teacher is entitled to a notice with a statement of the charges and a hearing in which the teacher may defend himself or herself against the charges. There is usually provision for appeal from the school board's decision to dismiss, either to a higher school authority such as the state superintendent or to the courts. The superintendent,with approval of the board, sends a written notice to the teacher of the board's intention to dismiss a teacher. The hearing-must be limited to the formal charges of which the teacher is given notice prior to the hearing, in order that he may have a reasonable opportunity to examine and refute evidence tendered against him and to raise any legal defense to it The charges may be related to causes for dismissal and must be related to the teacher's position. Requirement for the hearing to successfully dismiss a teacher is that the teacher has to be found guilty of one of the charges enumerated by law. The teacher decides whether the hearing will be public or private. The findings of this study are as follows : School boards cannot absolutely dismiss a teacher without obeying the due process procedures. In the U.S.A. the assurance of due process procedures in teacher dismissals is regarded in the same light with procedural justice. Teachers who are dismissed are entitled to notice, a hearing and an appeal, pursuant to due process procedures. Decisions must be made through procedural fairness, procedural rationality, and the practice of procedural justice. Important factors of the procedural system in which the people affected by a decision will accepts the decision are, in general, the participation of the people concerned, the assurance of substantial discussion, the opening of information to the public, the hearing officer's fairness and the decisions standing as to reasons etc.

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The purpose of this paper is to consider effective and the efficient management of education through analysing the reform of local educational management by the "New" Labour government in the UK, focusing in particular on the "Education Development Plan" (EDP), which is one of the most essential elements in their reform policy. Management reform is increasingly popular in the modern world, and Japan is no exception to this trend. In 1994 an Administrative Reform Committee was organised in Japan. According to their report, Japan Government policy is not as flexible and efficient as one might expect. The committee also established broadly applicable standards for judging overall management. Three fundamental principles were established : 1) the principle that whatever the private sector can do should be left to the private sector 2) the principle of efficient administration, i.e., putting the people first 3) accountability and openness In England from the 1980s governments have been tackling management reform, and they have already produced some results. The last Conservative government's policy was to both increase the centralization of power and to discourage reliance on the state, so the power of local government was reduced. However, the "New" Labour Government intends to revitalise the role of local government and to foster tripartite cooperation between the central government, the local government and the local community, thereby providing an effective and efficient service for all people. Central to this reform is the principle known as "Best Value". "Best Value" is the continuous search by the entire local council to find ways of improving the quality, efficiency and effectiveness of all its activities for the public. The EDP was introduced by the "New" Labour Government. The EDP will set out the Local Education Authority's (LEA) targets and priorities for a school improvement programme for the next three years. For this government, the first priority is "raising standards" in educational reform. LEA's are expected to challenge schools to raise standards and support good management and leadership in schools by liaising with schools and with school governing bodies. "Best Value" will be delivered principally through EDP. The "Best Value" framework and EDP will be the main vehicles by which LEAs fulfil their new duty to promote high standards in education. The EDP has two parts: -Statement of proposal : Setting targets The school improvement programme -Supporting information After approval by the Secretary of State, LEA's will abide by the provisions of the EDP from April 1999, and the EDP will be inspected by OFSTED. The introduction of the EDP is intended to bring about the following four developments: 1) LEA's must work effectively with schools and other partners to raise standards for all pupils 2) Schools should set challenging and realistic targets that contribute to LEA and national targets 3) Make LEAs publicly accountable to schools, parents and the local community for their role in raising standards 4) Show the success of LEA's in helping their schools improve In this paper, I have analysed two LEA's, Cumbria LEA and Kent LEA, and highlighted four key aspects of effective and efficient administration. 1) planning 2) cost effectiveness 3) monitoring 4) accountability

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The purpose of this study is to examine the contemporary significance and validity of the "Principle of Independence" of the Board of Education through a case analysis of "Community Center Administration" in Nakano City, Tokyo. On September 21st, 1998 the Central Council of Education emphasized the importance of co-operation between the Board of Education and general public administration. This is noteworthy because of the possibility that it could create inconsistency with the "Principle of Independence" from that of general public administration, which has been one of the key-concepts of educational administration at the local level in order to keep political neutrality. Nakano City has been the object of studies on "Junkousen" (quasi-official election) system for some time now. However, there are not many studies focused on process after the abrogation of "Junkousen" though it may show meaningful features in considering participation of local residents in educational administration. This paper consists of three sections. To begin with, the paper summarizes the discussion concerning the election systems of candidates for the members of the Board of Education and points out the change in the focal point of controversy after the "Junkousen" era. The focal point of the controversy in the "Junkousen" era as to residents' participation had been "political neutrality," whereas the discussion of participation after the abrogation tended to be focused on community-bond making for education. The paper, then, describes organizational structures of the local educational administration in Nakano City, focusing on the relation between general public administration and the Board of Education. Nakano City's local educational administration, which is characterized by 15 "Community Centers", can be described as a three-phased system (Headquarter Divisions, Community Centers Division, and local educational organizations). Functions of "Community Center Administration" include the following two aspects: First, this system enables correlation between different administrative divisions and this system in policy implementation and localization of educational policy. Second, this system enables residents and local educational organizations to become familiarized with educational administration. Finally, based on the arguments mentioned above, this paper examines the significance and validity of the "Principle of Independence" of educational administration. The case of Nakano City drives us to the question whether the independence of the Board of Education as an independent administrative board holds as much importance as before in today's situation in which the expansion of educational functions to the local society has increased in importance.

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This paper quantitatively analyzes parents' choice behavior in view of the possible introduction of a public school choice system in Japan. There exist a number of studies and discussions on the merits and demerits of the school choice system on a theoretical basis. However, since they are not supported by empirical data of actual school choice behavior, it is still unknown whether the school choice system is desirable, and if so, in what form the system should be introduced. This study aims to fill the lack of information on parental school preference, and to simulate the choice behavior. In this study we performed a questionnaire survey and obtained hypothetical choice data from 908 schoolchildren's parents in the Tokyo metropolitan area (primary school choice: 564 parents of first or second grade schoolchildren belonging to five primary schools; secondary school choice: 344 parents of fifth or sixth grade schoolchildren belonging to three primary schools) from February through July 1998. We conducted this survey in the Tokyo metropolitan area primarily because this area meets the requirements for school choice system, such as the density of population, the density of schools, and traffic conditions. The data obtained in this survey were analyzed using the rank-logit model, a disaggregate choice model that is suitable for analyzing individual choice behavior. The results show that 1) subjects were clearly classified into two groups in terms of choice behavior in both primary and secondary school choices, 2) these groups were different with respect to the rank-logit model representing school choice behavior, 3) there were no significant differences as to parent's educational background and occupation between the groups. On the other hand, we can find significant differences in individual taste or state such factors as the child's personality and dissatisfaction with real schools near their home. 4) It is possible that the school choice system, especially the secondary school choice system, causes over-concentration of children on a specific school or school ranking. These results enable us to simulate parent's school choice behavior under various conditions, and to examine what school characteristics and school disposition level will cause over-concentration on a specific school or school ranking. From another viewpoint, it is also necessary to analyze the survey data in areas besides Tokyo metropolitan area, and furthermore, to investigate why parents place a great deal of weight on proximity of school, especially on primary school choices.

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The purpose of this paper is to try to reform the theoretical framework of interpretation and to present new interpretations of representations about Koreans in Japan. Characteristic features from new studies of intercultural education, in order to make clear new perspectives of relationism and the politics of culture, will be described. Nowadays, it is said that the most interesting theoretical problems of description are methods of representation. It is important for all Human Scientists to exhaustively reconsider the negative influences of essentialism as the old perspective. To reinforce the framework of Critical Theory about culturs, to present rich and "thick" views of the meaning systems of a delimited set of subjects, and to represent the broader system of political economy that links them to other subjects, who are also richly portrayed in their own world, calls for a new experimental theory and method. Texts of educational administration for foreigners and dealing with certain problems, for exmple, narratives of "the other people," representation of the identities of foreigners themselves, discrimination against ethnic minorities and so on, will be examined. The composition of this paper is as follows. I. The subject of this paper. II. Reformation of theoretical framework (1)The characteristic new studies of intercultural education (focusing on educational studies about Koreans in Japan) (2) Reformation of Critical Theory about cultures. III. Representation of Korean People in texts (1) "Macro-causality" of the texts: "outside"contexts (2) Representation of Korean People in the texts: "inside"contexts IV. Conclusion and Future Prospects

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Akita City and Okayama City decided almost the same policy, i.e. establishing a public six-year secondary school at the same time. The timing by which the establishment of these schools was decided was very early though both cities are the same as other cities in respect to financial ability. In traditional theory, the central government controls local governments, and prefectures manage and coordinate their cities as upper level local governments. Some researchers have shown that local government leaders are likely to be sensitive to the economic interests of their communities. Reed has investigated some problems in the way of political decision making in Japanese prefectures. However, he did not mention the policy selection by local government within educational policy. From another point of view, Hess's research provides us with useful information. He shows political explanations of policy selections in U.S. urban school districts. But he did not focus on governmental relations and competition between cities in opposition to each other. The first purpose of this paper is try to show that the political leadership of a mayor is an important factor in policy selection. The second purpose is to point out that a close connection between the central government and cities is now exists. In that case, prefectures and their cities are in competition with each other concerning the introduction of new educational policies. In this paper data have been collected from interviews with people who participated in establishing a six-year school (Gosyono-Gakuin Junior High and High School) in Akita City in 1998 and 1999. Recently in Japan political and institutional circumstances have been promoting autonomy of local governments. As can be seen in the results of research into the United States urban politics, it can be assumed that local government already has independence in policy making.

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1. Background to the International Symposium This symposium was planned based on joint seminars between The Japan Educational Administration Society (JEAS) and The Korean Educational Administration Society. They were held for the last four years in Japan and Korea. This time we planned to enlarge the scope of participations to other Asian countries in order to further the internationalization of our Society and this led us to hold this international symposium on the economic crisis and the tasks of educational policy in Asian counties. 2. Purposes of the International Symposium One of the purposes of this symposium is to set up cooperation within Asian countries on educational administration research. In particular, it will be very important for us to exchange opinions and ideas on our common problems in the educational administration and policy. Though we Asian countries face different educational problems that occur from the historical, cultural, political and economical background, we can find common aspects or bases to those problems. They have the same characteristics, namely wide international social changes. Informationalization and economic globalization have covered not only developed countries but also developing countries. Particularly after the economic crisis that occurred in Thailand last year, most east and south-east Asian countries will have to change their educational policy. All participant countries in this symposium are more and less suffering from this economic crisis in their education system. In this symposium, we expect to make clear what the relationships are among social changes, economic crisis and educational policy in each country, of which has its own situation. We will be able to consider the future of education in globalization from this viewpoint. 3. Participant Countries, Speakers and Titles 1) Malaysia: RAMAIAH, Al (University of Malaya) Educational Development in Times of Economic Crisis : The Malaysian Perspective 2) China: GU, Ming-Yuan (Beijing Normal University) Higher Education in China : Moving Towards the 21st Century 3) Thailand: SINLARAT, Paitoon (Chulalongkorn University) Educational Policy under the Social and Economic Crisis in Thailand 4) Korea: LEE, Chong-Jae (Seoul National University) Restructuring Strategies in Korean Educational System 5) Japan: KUMAGAI, Kazunori (Soka University) Educational Policy in the Midst of Social Change and Economic Crisis <p.s.> Finally, I myself would like to appreciate the cooperation of all presenters who are the leading researchers in their own countries and Prof. Nakatome, Prof. Shinohara of Kyushu University and Prof. Horiuch of Kyoto University of Education, who have carried out all the arrangements for this symposium. And I should also inform you that this symposium could be held with the financial support of The Japan Foundation.

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1. Purpose and Background of This Thesis The range of information media has expanded to include not only books, newspapers, and telephones but also computers, advanced information networks, satellite communications, and satellite broadcasting. Global information networks are being developed, enabling information to be transmitted and swiftly received. In the academic world, using information devices, we can achieve greater efficiency and various other changes. The advancing shift to an information-oriented society has also reduced the barriers of time and distance and enabled us to build new types of communities through information networks. Then, what is the phase of public education and educational administration in the next century? Perhaps, we think, many members in our Society cannot answer this question. We must have concrete figures and clear perspectives in common, about the public education and educational administration to come. Therefore, this thesis aims to make clear where the information society is taking us, and what the future of public education and educational administration will be. 2. Summary of Three Presentations Prof. Kaneko, on explanation of the present situation regarding information-orienting in public education, the educational administration, and research on those, emphasized that a researcher needs to be well adapted to the information society, whether he or she likes it or not. Prof. Ikeda proposed that information-orienting in the public education, the educational administration will call on educational administrators to improve accountability, and then, the educational administration will promote the degree of transparency. Prof. Kawashima inquired about research on an educational administration to come. According to his perception, the research on an educational administration will lose the assumption about public education. By his view, although we promised that public education needed a social relationship composed of mutual trust, the information society will break the direct relationship, and build a virtual relationship so that we will not be able to promise that. 3. Summary of Conference After the discussion among the participants, there were three points; about 1) media literacy, 2) administrative responsibility and accountability, and 3) what a research style should be. The problem of media literacy suggested how colleagues, teachers, and applicants to be teachers could improve their ability, and suggested how we could decrease the load of voluntary advisers. The problem of administrative responsibility and accountability included the matter of free access to information. On a discussion of the third point, various perceptions concerned with the future of public education were pointed out. It was a heated discussion.

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1. The purpose of this thesis The problem of the total number of personnel at public schools and the staffing of schools has occupied a very important position in educational policy in Japan. This is because it is a fundamental condition needed to raise school education standards as well as the problem of quality and capacity of personnel in public schools. Today an ever-increasing number of children are mentally and physically exhausted by 'exam hell', by examination scores, by corporal punishment, by bullying, and by school violence. These children are refusing in evergrowing numbers to go to school. We must look the facts straight in the face. Looking ahead to education in the 21st century, in June 1997 the Central Council for Education issued its first report. In this report, the Council emphasized the significance of the problem of staffing schools among the current topics of educational reform. 2. Summary of three reports Three members of our Society presented their opinions on this topic. The first reporter, Y. Wakai (Jyoetsu University of Teacher Education), proposed that we discuss the practice and problems concerning the 6th improving program of total personnel number in public schools. The next, A. Watanabe (Tottori University), discussed the significance and problems concerning the Standard Laws on class size and the total personnel numbers in public schools. The last reporter, S. Takakura (Meikai University), reported on national finances impact on the total personnel number at public schools. 3. Summary of the discussion After the presentations, we took some questions and heard opinions from the participants. The focus of the discussion was centered around the problem of staffing schools of personnel of public schools. The 6th program has arranged the new diverse staff in schools by the team-teaching method and others. However, the present limit of 40 pupils and students per class has not been improved. The proposal that this number should be reduced to 30 has been supported by public opinion. Therefore, we were conscious of the following. In the end, we should study how to establish a new principle of public school organization and also how to improve the class size and total personnel number at public schools in Japan.

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In this paper, I have been asked to discuss my own feelings and will as personal reflections as well as to treat the objective system of knowledge that is Educational Administration Research. How do I connect the subjective and objective aspects? It is the basic task of this paper. I discuss three points as follows: 1. Concerning reflections on concepts, objects and methods, I quote important parts of my paper titled "Objects and Methods of Educational Administration Research" (1992). 2. For over two decades, I have been studying the undergraduate admissions system, a subject which has been studied by only a few other researchers although its importance, through methods of comparative study, investigating study and historical study, is great. 3. Recently, I am very interested in an importance of studying ideas of school and university education. In this paper, I introduce my study of Arinori Mori and Inazo Nitobe around ideas for the former system of the higher school, and study historical problems concerning these ideas and promotion from the Higher Commercial School to the Tokyo University of Commerce. Finally, I give some reflections on problems in studying values and ideas through discussing these historical facts.

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