In the German-speaking world around 1900, early musicology faced two simultaneous challenges: investigating objects of interest and constructing a system of technical terms. For contemporary musicologists, an important way to address these challenges consisted in developing specific expertise as a scientific discipline by drawing knowledge from neighboring sciences into their own intellectual field. Anfänge der Tonkunst（1903） by Richard Wallaschek exemplifies such scientification of music scholarship. This article revisits this work, which was previously deemed an early example of comparative musicology in Vienna, although it is now scarcely read, and attempts to reconstruct its primary ideas, examine its contemporary reception, and reveal how its discourse type differed from the other evolutionary theories of music in Vienna at the time.
   Wallaschek’s view, which cautiously distinguishes music’s origin from its progress and closely examines earlier arguments by C. Darwin and H. Spencer, was unilaterally labeled a rhythm-focused theory by C. Stumpf and R. Lach and lost its significance. This conflict between Wallaschek and especially Lach represents a difference in disciplinary consciousness regarding what reliable musicological knowledge was. Wallaschek consistently contributes to the scientification of music scholarship from the standpoint of music as a human act by positing “Takt” as the inner-psychological factor and “Spiel” as the outer one for the birth of music. However, Lach posits “Urschrei” as the origin of music to emphasize the view of music as sound. Furthermore, this difference is correlated with their respective manners of borrowing the expertise from evolutionary biology. Lach’s repressive borrowing consistently alludes to the biogenetic law of E. Haeckel to twist conceptual differences between historical musicology and evolutionary biology. Wallaschek, however, conservatively commits to biological knowledge to design musicology as a human science, which highlights the plurality of musicological discourse underneath contemporary natural-science-oriented texts.

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   In 1954, following the Geneva Accords, Vietnam was divided into two parts, of which the northern part, the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, was based on a socialist system. The Worker’s Party of Vietnam, the country’s ruling party, not only imposed strict ideological control but also actively promoted the development of its own culture. Regarding opera, which has its origin in Italy in the end of 16th century, the Ministry of Culture founded a national opera company and produced foreign operas. Composer Đỗ Nhuận （1922–1991） composed a performance work, ‘Cô Sao’, based on this form of opera and it premiered in 1965 as the first ‘musical theatre（ nhạc kịch）’ in the country.
   Using official documents, newspapers, magazines, and musical scores, this paper examines Vietnam’s policies, activities, and discourses related to opera from 1954 to 1965. It describes how Vietnam, which had a close relationship with great operatic countries such as France and the Soviet Union, dealt with opera, an imported genre of art. Focusing on Vietnam’s foreign relations and their outlook on international society, this paper discusses the function of the opera in Vietnam’s statebuilding.
   Inheriting its colonial heritage, such as the opera house, musical knowledge, skills, and musicians, as well as receiving the active cooperation of socialist countries, the Vietnamese government and musicians built operatic institutions, formulated new interpretations of opera, and created original work replete with Vietnamese colour. Opera, in terms of Vietnamese state-building, was the means for Vietnam to place itself on the international stage. Furthermore, Vietnamese musicians adopted the term ‘musical theatre’ as a unique concept of the genre, which enabled Vietnam to look at various countries, such as the European nations, Soviet Union, and China, and envision an independent state under the Cold War structure, especially when the Hot War was beginning in Vietnam.

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   The official importation of Western art music in Japan began during the Meiji period （1868– 1912）. Western music was initially accepted for the purpose of moral education and to build nationalism in Japan. Gradually, it was appreciated by the educated elites, such as scholars and students in higher education in the late Meiji period.
   Ueda Bin （1874–1916）, subsequently known as a renowned literary critic, was the first contributor who wrote music criticisms in literary magazines when he was a student. He evaluated Western art music as fine art in his music criticism.
   Analyzing his criterial term “expression”（ エキスプレッション） heavily used in music criticism, this study examines the process of acceptance of Western art music in Japan as well as its ideological and social background.
   First, this paper examines Ueda’s terminological innovation. While “expression” had been introduced to the Japanese music world as an important element to express spirits and emotions in western books, Ueda was the first critic who used it as a criterion of music performance.
   Second, this paper analyzes his ideological and social background for using the term in music criticism. Ueda particularly appreciated the nineteenth-century European artistic view represented by Arthur Schopenhauer, which emphasized spirits and emotions embodied in music. He also aimed to provide a different musical view which expressed the passion of “youth” as opposed to the existing one in which music had been a form of entertainment mainly for women and children.
   Ueda’s style of music criticism—which was influenced by the European artistic view that embedded metaphysical expressions in music—indicated a new perspective against the Japanese limited view of the music of his time. Eventually, his music criticism supported the prevalence of Western music as sophisticated culture in Japan.

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   This study adopts the standpoint of relevant program producers to examine the changes in music broadcasting during the Pacific War. It attends particularly to Yoshida Shin （1904–1988）, who became Director of the Music Department of Nippon Hoso Kyokai （Japan Broadcasting Corporation） in 1943, investigating the context of his appointment as Director and his ideas on music. It further outlines several music programs produced under Yoshida’s supervision.
   Western and Japanese music programs were produced in separate sections in Japan since the start of radio broadcasting in 1925. Western music program producers placed much importance on enhancing the education levels of their listeners. This broadcasting policy shifted from lifting wartime spirits to a more mass-oriented direction once the protracted nature of the Pacific War became evident. The Corporation then asked Yoshida to assume the position of Director to handle the changing circumstances. Music journalist Yoshida was well versed in all genres of music and had cultivated a widespread human network. He requested an organizational merger of music program production and emphasized devising music presentations that the public could enjoy or that were based on traditional Japanese aesthetics. He subsequently accelerated the generation of music broadcasts and songs that transcended the existing musical genres.
   Intertwined with the wartime broadcasting policy, Yoshida’s views on music, which did not separate music by genre, triggered a removal of the exclusive framework of “Western music broadcasting” that had long existed and a subsequent ideological and organizational transfiguration of the music- broadcasting domain. His approach which emphasized on the preferences of the public has strong continuity with music broadcasting after the war. Thus, music broadcasting during this period can also be understood as the embryonic period of a new era of music broadcasting. 　

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