The aim of this article is to reinterpret the "Progressivism" in the educational thoughts of Social Studies as Citizenship Education in the United States through examination of the discussion by Ravitch and Evans.

Following are the findings from our examination of their discussion: 1) Diane Ravitch is an Essentialist who identifies Progressive Social Studies as an obstacle to knowledge and the sense of values that should be shared as the members of communities/societies. According to this interpretation, Progressivism contradicts/oppose Essentialism. 2) Ronald W. Evans identifies Progressivism as Comprehensive Explanation Framework of Social Studies. In this new interpretation, Social Studies is based on getting the knowledge and the values and aims to evaluate the communities/societies through the study of social issues. According to Evans' interpretation, Progressivism included Essentialism, and the two perspectives become cohesive. These interpretations suggest that the educational thoughts of Social Studies can consider a wider range and varieties of the characteristics of Social Studies as the citizenship education.

In this research, what kind of the class of apparatus gymnastics preservice teachers aim to conduct, and what kind of the class of apparatus gymnastics they have in mind are studied by conducting case study. The following 4 points are clarified as a result of the study.

① Preservice teachers plan the class of apparatus gymnastics from three viewpoints of "Attitude they want their students to acquire by apparatus gymnastics", "Skills they want their students to acquire by apparatus gymnastics", and "Knowledge they want their students to acquire by apparatus gymnastics".

② Preservice teachers consider that 10 viewpoints, such as "they can show an example" or "they can consider the safety aspect", are important when conducting the class of apparatus gymnastics.

③ Preservice teachers will be able to create the class with more concrete plans by limiting the area of the class, such as apparatus gymnastics or track and field.

④ It seems that preservice teachers consider it is necessary to plan and conduct the physical education class by not only teaching "Skills", but also linking "Knowledge" and "Attitude" with "Skills".

In order to clarify the function of class in "Herbartian" didactics, a historical research of the arguments about Klassenunterricht class instruction was conducted. The study focuses on the Karl Gottfried Scheibert's concept of class instruction reform and examines (1) the structure and characteristics of his theory of class instruction and (2) his position and role in "Herbartian".

Scheibert purposed a change from "intellectual school (Lernschule)" to "educative school" for education for citizen by introducing "School Life (Schulleben)". For this purpose, he tried to create a community in which students learn and live together, and to take advantage of the educational benefits of the class-community.

His concept affected "Herbartian's (above all Kar Volkmar Stoy and Wilhelm Rein)" view of school. However, in accepting his concept in "Herbartian", his concept of "school life" as a principle of school reform was changed to a field for training.

After the Sino-Japanese War, Japanese primary teachers faced a need for a qualitative transformation, and started to systematically correspond for the purpose of obtaining new abilities and perspectives. To disover how did local primary teachers' associations were tranformed during these troubled times, we conducted a case study of the Private Educational Society of Tohaku in Kurayoshi a teachers' association in Tottori prefecture.

The teachers from the Tottori Normal School were closely involved in the reorganization of the teachers' association. The teachers aimed at and consequently gained a foothold in the training of teachers in the context of those turbulent years, by stressing their obligation to promote Japanese nationalism. Their motivation was rooted in their dissatisfaction with the previous objectives of the association.

As a result of these teachers' efforts, the Private Educational Society of Tohaku was reorganized. A new research group was established and researches were initiated in the existing school union wherein the teachers from the Tottori Normal School held central positions.

Some researchers, using the apprenticeship analogy, have shown that moral education as an initiation into the practices of a community provides a valuable insight into character-formation (Bildung) without engaging in either indoctrination or radical moral relativism. However, investigation into how to recognize the otherness of children in understanding moral education as initiation has been limited. This paper illustrates how the limitation can be addressed based of the ideas of John McDowell and Robert Brandom. McDowell suggests that we cannot perceive an object until we acquire the concept of it. He subsequently analogizes moral judgment to perception implying that we can try to perceive the moral value more accurately than we have ever perceived According to Brandom, we are in the arena in which our commitments to use a concept are evaluated by each other. It is possible that in this arena our way of using the concept changes dynamically by other people's evaluation. Based on these theories, I consider how the utterance "I see X as Y" functions in this social arena. Since the utterance expresses the perception of the utterer, it shows us the possibility of his/her otherness. It also forces us to try to appreciate the truth of the world because the utterer may see a truth we have yet to see.

As the town of Kurashiki rapidly developed into a commercial and industrial city during the late Meiji and Taisho periods, it faced serious issues such as population increase, demographic polarization, and deterioration of the educational environment. To overcome the problems of poorly performing students and an inferior educational environment in the local community, Principal Morohei Saito (1882-1957) led the implementation of the New Education Practice at his Kurashiki Elementary School. This Education Practice was not an imitation of private elementary schools or elementary schools affiliated with teacher's schools. Rather, it was developed through the support of the local community and education practice research conducted by a group of local teachers.

This study aims to use the affordance theory as a key to highlight the possibilities of and methods for fostering the ability to conceptualize language, which is yet to be explored within the context of Japanese language instructions.

While speaking, most of us if we actually want others to understand us attempt to choose the appropriate words and organize them clearly. Likewise, we put in more effort into the language we want to engage in; in particular, we reflect on our past language experiences, choose words or meanings of expressions, picture our listeners' responses, and envision ideal results. In other words, we self-regulate the actual language by repeating anticipated thoughts and dialogs. In this study, we refer to the ability to conceptualize language as the ability to produce language with desired anticipated results, as mentioned above.

The affordance theory is a perspective that can serve as a foreground for a microslip process that anticipates the language interaction one wants to engage in. This study assumes that the affordance theory is effective in guiding Japanese language learning as a native language emphasizing the authentic process of these language interaction. Asking learners to search for and choose appropriate language within diverse circumstances is expected to nurture the ability to conceptualize language in a Japanese language education.

The present research aims to specify the guidelines for discussions in junior high school classrooms in Japan from the postwar era to wid 1960s and to identify issues related to the guidelines. A survey of teaching materials related to discussion guidelines in junior high school Japanese language textbooks from three publishers were administered, and the cognitive content at the core of the guidance was investigated, and resulted in the following three findings (1) discussion development and the use of rules, as well as knowledge about words used in the discussions, were often identified as cognitive content in the teaching materials; (2) guidance for mental information processing, which is necessary during the discussions, does not appear adequate; and (3) there were insufficient teaching materials (in scripted form) on how to guide mental information processing. Future research will focus on teaching materials used in the mid-1960s to mid-1980s.