Philosophy (Tetsugaku)
Online ISSN : 1884-2380
Print ISSN : 0387-3358
ISSN-L : 0387-3358
Volume 2010, Issue 61
Displaying 1-20 of 20 articles from this issue
  • “Non-pensée” over “Brain Death” and “Organ Transplantation”
    Tomohiko TANAKA
    2010 Volume 2010 Issue 61 Pages 9-24_L3
    Published: 2010
    Released on J-STAGE: January 18, 2011
    JOURNAL FREE ACCESS
    In May 2009, when the debate about a bill to amend the Organ Transplantation Act began, 71 university scholars engaged in bioethics education and research, formed a voluntary association named “Seimei-Rinri Kaigi”, and made an urgent appeal for thorough study and deliberation before voting on the amendment. This statement warned of fundamental defects in existing concepts of “brain death” and “organ transplantation”. However, the Diet passed the bill without responding in any way to the appeal.
    In this paper, I discuss “non-pensée” over “brain death” and “organ transplantation”, and suggest that it underlies our discourses about death, particularly in the following areas; 1) the confusion between “death” and “standard of death”, 2) the return of “Vernichtung Lebensunwerten Lebens”, 3) the reduction of “ethics” to “law”, 4) the biotechnological public exploitation of our bodies, and 5) the biopolitical aspect of care. I think these are unavoidable themes if we reflect on present discourses about death.
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  • Mariko FUJITA
    2010 Volume 2010 Issue 61 Pages 25-33_L3
    Published: 2010
    Released on J-STAGE: January 18, 2011
    JOURNAL FREE ACCESS
    Le but de cet article est de présenter certaines perspectives pour le débat public sur la peine de mort en vue de l'abolition.
    Au début, pour préparer la base de la discussion, j'ai revu le chemin parcouru par l'abolition mondiale de la fin de la seconde guerre mondiale jusqu'à la résolution de l'assemblée générale de l'ONU en 2007 et 2008.
    Alors qu'aprés la seconde guerre mondiale, le nombre d'homicide au Japon a continué de réduire, la plupart des japonais croient qu'il a augmenté et que la société japonaise devient plus dangereuse à cause de la médiatisation des affaires criminelles. Ils se sentent en danger et s'inquiètent.
    La première perspective présentée est la peine de mort comme un système d'état qui, vis à vis de l'inquiètude du peuple, l'utilise comme une excuse pour se présenter comme faisant face à l'insécurité et aux crimes. La peine de mort ne peut pas être la clef essentielle pour maintenir la sécurité, mais une société inclusive est importante pour réduire le crime.
    La deuxième perspective est le droit pour la vie et la conception du «bien-être public». Dans la constitution, les droits du peuple sont limités seulement par le bien-être public. Il se pose alors une question: cette limitation peut-elle s'appliquer au droit pour la vie? Et en même temps, il faut identifier le bien-être conçu par le peuple japonais.
    La troisième perspective est l'égalité du droit pour la vie. Cela dépendrait de la frontière que nous avons qui divise l'être humain «comme nous» et les autres.
    À la fin de cet article, j'exprime la conviction dans le progrès des droits humains et dans le fait que l'abolition de la peine de mort sera atteinte par la levée des frontières entre nous et les autres.
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  • An Essay on Meta-thanatology
    Ichiro MORI
    2010 Volume 2010 Issue 61 Pages 35-52_L4
    Published: 2010
    Released on J-STAGE: January 18, 2011
    JOURNAL FREE ACCESS
    Since the first atomic explosions we have lived in the modern world, where a danger of the annihilation of mankind holds us in suspense. Coping with our potentialities for the self-destruction of human existence is not only a basic condition of our being together with each other, but it also provides an opportunity for beginning to think anew from wondering.
    Originally, philosophers were concerned not with the topics of death and mortality, but with the subjects of immortality and eternity. Political life and metaphysics were among the main ways for mortals to immortalize themselves. Christianity then discovered another hope: deathless life hereafter. The evaluation of life itself as the highest good has survived modern skepticism. As a result of modernity only the potentially unending life process of the species mankind might be immortal. Now, for us who are likely to lose this last hope, how could it be “real” to think upon immortalities?
    In his essay on “Immortality and the Modern Temper” H. Jonas narrates a hypothetical myth of the risk of the Creator, in terms of which human deeds could become immortal: our cooperative enterprise to ensure creatures' existence in the future. This type of striving for immortality consists of two principles, life and world. Responsibility for the permanent world is required by intergenerational ethics, and should be accompanied by a concern for “things” insofar as the world is composed of such entities, man-made objects. Things, though fabricated by mortals, are of a certain durability and stability. Without their “reality” we can not live a human life. Our ordinary care for things grows into love for the world.
    Inspired by M. Heidegger's terminology of “metontology” I propose to name this manner of turning back to the ontico-ethical conditions of our persisting Being-in-the-world “meta-thanatology.”
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  • Tatsuya KASHIWABATA
    2010 Volume 2010 Issue 61 Pages 53-67_L5
    Published: 2010
    Released on J-STAGE: January 18, 2011
    JOURNAL FREE ACCESS
    In this paper for the colloquium “Metaphysics Revisited”, I would like to emphasizae the following points: (1) I am skeptical about the view that metaphysics has been revived in recent years or decades. Despite repeated attacks on “metaphysics”, debates in the many areas of metaphysics have always found a place in the main body of philosophical thought. It seems that, in reality, there have not been any “darkest times” in the history of metaphysics, at least during recent centuries. (2) However, this does not mean that there has been one big question which all metaphysicians have been trying to answer. The historical “identity” of metaphysics consists, in fact, in continuity: this is manifested in the form of successive references to a specific kind of philosophical puzzle, and in the chain created through the sharing of various conceptual tools. (3) Such continuity also has a synchronic aspect. Thus, metaphysics as a branch of philosophy has vague boundaries, and connects seamlessly with other branches of philosophy. This aspect suggests that contemporary metaphysics has good potential applicability in other fields.
    I illustrate the second point mentioned above by citing the example of the history of the “problem of universals”. Then, with regard to the third point, I show that metaphysical ideas are indeed applicable to concrete problems in other branches of philosophy, including moral philosophy.
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  • An Aristotelian Point of View
    Koji SAKASHITA
    2010 Volume 2010 Issue 61 Pages 69-84_L6
    Published: 2010
    Released on J-STAGE: January 18, 2011
    JOURNAL FREE ACCESS
    In this paper, I consider contemporary analytic/Anglo-American/ontological metaphysics and non-analytic/Continental/theological metaphysics from an Aristotelian point of view.
    In the first chapter, I examine E. J. Lowe's ontological conception of metaphysics as “modal knowledge”. According to Lowe, the subject of metaphysics is the possible. The possible is, he insists, the ontological category that is knowable a priori. In the Aristotelian theory of category, however, being knowable a priori is not a concept that is associated with the idea of category.
    In the second chapter, I discuss M. Heidegger's idea of a weak divinity as in the Aristotelian theology and H. Jonas' reflection on the use of speculative “mythos” in metaphysics. Heidegger's interpretation of Aristotle reveals an important dimension of Aristotle's theology. Likewise, Jonas' view about the metaphysical use of “mythos” agrees with Aristotle's ideas regarding the status of metaphysical or theological statements.
    In the third chapter, I consider the problem of the relation between ontology and theology in an Aristotelian conception of metaphysics. I suggest that Aristotle's metaphysics is ontology precisely because of its being theology. On the one hand, most analytic types of metaphysics do not have theology as an essential part; on the other hand, most non-analytic types of metaphysics do not have the same formal ontology that analytic ones have. Neither type of metaphysics is adequate to constitute metaphysics proper. For the future of metaphysics, dialogue between analytic and non-analytic metaphysicians will be essential.
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  • ——In conjunction with Adorno's and Benjamin's understanding of Marx's thought——
    Hiroyuki ASOU
    2010 Volume 2010 Issue 61 Pages 85-104_L7
    Published: 2010
    Released on J-STAGE: January 18, 2011
    JOURNAL FREE ACCESS
    If one were to reread Marx's writings today, which would be the phase of Marx's thought that would merit special attention? In this paper, I find that one core of Marx's thoughts lies in “critique.” I would therefore like to explore the significance that this critique can have as a form of fundamental thought. With this in mind, I want to consider Adorno's and Benjamin's interpretation of Marx's thought, with particular reference to their emphasis on “history”.
    Adorno characterizes Marx's thought as “a critical theory of society” and thinks that it is only understandable as “a historical theory”. Adorno's view is remarkable in that it characterizes Marx's thought as a form of “interpretation (Deutung)” of “natural history (Naturgeschichte)”. This can be seen as an attempt, on the one hand, to show that various societal realities that should have historical reality appear as something inevitable or as things which obey “the coercion of nature”, but on the other hand, to perceive such realities in the form of something natural or eternal which have become historically, therefore as things which are fundamentally contingent. Benjamin, in contrast, thinks that one core of Marx's thoughts consists in the recognition of history as a “critique” to uncover “the memory of the anonymous (das Gedächtnis der Namenlosen)”. In Benjamin's view, when history up to the present is grasped as something continuous, it is just a “continuum of the oppressors”. Benjamin defines the form of history description that liquidates “the epic element” of this continuous history as “construction”, and tries to understand an essential part of the Marx's thought as such an attempt to explode “the continuum of history” and to rescue “the tradition of the oppressed”.
    In this paper, through my clarification of Adorno's and Benjamin's understanding of Marx's thought, I attempt to examine the significance of Marx's “critique” of “history” and, through it, offer a worthy topic for further discussion.
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  • Minoru TABATA
    2010 Volume 2010 Issue 61 Pages 105-122_L9
    Published: 2010
    Released on J-STAGE: January 18, 2011
    JOURNAL FREE ACCESS
    Etwa um 1980 herum entschied ich mich, noch einmal die Werke von Karl Marx zu lesen. Seitdem habe ich zwei Bücher auf Japanisch veröffentlicht: Marx und die Assoziation (1994) und Marx und Philosophie (2004). Die hauptsächlichen Ergebnisse sind folgende:
    (1) Sein Verhältnis zur Philosophie.
    a) Anfangs stand Marx auf dem Standpunkt der idealistischen „Philosophie des Willens“. b) Dann entwickelte er die Vorstellung eines historischen Blocks der Philosophie mit dem Proletariat. c) Aber seit 1845 kritisierte er die Philosophie selbst als eine verkehrte Ideologie, und stand außerhalb der Philosophie. d) Im Jahr 1873 betonte er die Bedeutung des hegelschen „kritischen Begreifens“ für Das Kapital, aber 1877 lehnte er verschiedene Versuche ab, seine Theorie in eine Art Geschichtsphilosophie zu verwandeln.
    (2) Das Bewusstsein.
    Das „Bewusstsein der Menschen“ bedeutet, dass die Menschen ihre Lebenstätigkeiten selbst zum Gegenstand machen. Für Marx muss das Bewusstsein zuallererst im Zusammenhang mit den Lebenstätigkeiten erfasst werden. Wir müssen diese Grundbestimmung von den besonderen (transzendentalen, physiologischen, sprachlichen, ideologischen und psychoanalytischen) Bestimmungen unterscheiden.
    (3) Materialismus.
    Materialismus bei Marx ist kein philosophischer Begriff, sondern „der kritische materialistische Sozialismus“ (MEW19-229). Marx forderte von den Sozialisten, sich der materiellen Bedingungen ihrer sozialen Bewegungen bewusst zu werden. Der sog. Materie-Begriff ist für ihn nichts anderes als ein Begriff des „materiellen Lebens der Menschen“. Marx lehnte den bürgerlichen und den naturwissenschaftlichen Materialismus als versachlichte Denkungsarten ab.
    (4) Der Staat.
    Der Staat ist zuerst „die offizielle Zusammenfassung“ der bürgerlichen Gesellschaft (H-148). Wenn die Gesellschaft Antagonismen in sich enthält, wird die „Zusammenfassung“ derselben eine antagonistische Form annehmen.
    (5) Die Assoziation.
    Die „Assoziation“ ist sein eigener Grundbegriff. Die Assoziation ermöglicht die Kontinuität von den spontanen Bewegungen der Gegenwart zur zukünftigen Gesellschaft. Sie könnte auch die Kontinuität von Marx zu uns gewährleisten.
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  • Takeshi AKIBA
    2010 Volume 2010 Issue 61 Pages 149-164_L9
    Published: 2010
    Released on J-STAGE: January 18, 2011
    JOURNAL FREE ACCESS
    According to the widely accepted correspondence theory of truth, each atomic contingent truth has its own truth-maker, i.e., an entity existing in the world that makes contingent proposition true. And at least for the metaphysical realist, the first and obvious candidates for truth-maker are entities called “facts” or “states of affairs”. These are entities normally designated by expressions like “a's being F” or “the fact that a is F”.
    Although it seems natural to assume that states of affairs exist, there is a famous objection to this assumption, known as “Bradley's regress”. Roughly put, the objection proceeds as follows. The states of affairs are supposed to be complex entities. However, what accounts for the unity of constituents in the state of affairs, say, Fa? If one appeals to the exemplification relation E to bind the constituents a and F together, the explanatory job is not yet finished. For, in that case, the unity of a, F, and E now raises the same problem. It is no use to add further and further exemplification relations E', E'', E'''..., because each time one adds a new relation, one gets only a new explanatory task, and never the unity of a and F. Thus, since the unity of constituents cannot be accounted for, the assumption that states of affairs exist should be regarded as groundless.
    Against this objection, F. Orilia replies as follows. Though the regress objection above seems to seriously threaten the assumption that states of affairs exist, in fact it does not. For, the thought that there is an infinite explanatory sequence does not involve any inconsistency. As for myself, I agree with him as far as his last claim is concerned, namely the claim that there is no inconsistency in the idea of infinite explanatory sequence. However, I disagree with him as far as the evaluation of the regress objection is concerned. I claim that the alleged explanatory sequence generated in the regress objection is in fact vacant in its explanatory power, and hence that this objection in any way shows the failure of explanatory task.
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  • The Possibility of Leibniz's Philosophy of Geometry
    Hiroyuki INAOKA
    2010 Volume 2010 Issue 61 Pages 165-179_L10
    Published: 2010
    Released on J-STAGE: January 18, 2011
    JOURNAL FREE ACCESS
    In this paper, we examine Leibniz's critique of Euclidean geometry and show what the point of his critique is. Leibniz thinks that, for the human mind to acquire geometrical ideas which have their origin in God's intellect, the use of symbols is essential. By Leibniz's theory of expressio, there is a structural isomorphism between the symbol system and the world. So we can acquire an eternal truth by using symbols. In Euclidean geometry, diagrams are used as symbols to introduce geometrical objects, but there is a difference in a precise sense between a diagram which is actually described and a geometrical object as an abstract object, so imagination must abstract this microscopic difference somehow. But, to acquire an intended geometrical object from a given diagram, we must in advance capture it by means of some kind of intellectual intuition. However, Leibniz rejects ideas acquired by intuition. So, he must discard diagrams as symbols capable of introducing geometrical objects appropriately.
    In fact, criticizing Euclidean geometry, Leibniz recognizes the role and importance of symbols in geometry and becomes keenly aware that diagrams are not capable of introducing geometrical objects. In analysis, Leibniz readily permits abstraction by imagination and he is thereby able to solve many mathematical problems. However, in geometry he cannot use diagrams in this way, for we cannot solve even an easy geometrical problem without expressing the geometrical object appropriately. This means that Leibniz realizes that between geometry and other areas of mathematics there is an essential difference in the function of imagination.
    Traditionally, Leibniz's critique of Euclidean geometry is interpreted as a kind of technical critique. But, the key point of his critique is that using diagrams as means of introducing geometrical objects involves a difficulty which is not solved in the framework of Leibniz's theory of knowledge based upon symbols and the theory of expressio.
    Finally, we discuss some features of Leibniz's characteristica geometrica [geometrical character], which he developed in order to overcome the defects of Euclidean geometry.
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  • Marika OGATA
    2010 Volume 2010 Issue 61 Pages 181-196_L11
    Published: 2010
    Released on J-STAGE: January 18, 2011
    JOURNAL FREE ACCESS
    Many of the philosophers who study the private language argument have thought that there must be common rules and criteria of correctness governing the use of words in a language. Wittgenstein, the founder of this problematic, begins his argument with a setting in which a person assigns a private sign (or “signs”) to her/his private sensation (s), and says this sign is meaningless because there can be no “is right/seems right” distinction within what is disclosed by introspection alone. In other words, a private language would lack the rules and criteria that a language (a word) must have.
    It is doubtful, however, that from such a point of view, we can effectively deny the existence of a private language. First, those comments provide a sample of a private language and explain what it is like before they allegedly prove its impossibility. This is a contradiction because the very fact that we can understand the argument already demonstrates that the sample is not “private.” Second, in this notion of a private language, a sample word is considered to designate a sensation that is “private” to a speaker. The argument is that such a language is not a language at all because it lacks criteria according to which we might judge whether a word is used correctly or not; however, the same is true of any ordinary words that stand for ordinary feelings in our existing, public languages. If a speaker is rational, we believe what the speaker believes about her/his feeling.
    Thus we conclude that the existence of a private language cannot be refuted by the argumentation based on the necessity of public criteria in a language. What we should notice is that the fact that any sample of private language can be understood by any body is the very evidence that private language cannot exist; the private language argument suggests the fundamental difficulty of empiricism. This is the most important point of the private language argument.
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  • Die philosophische Diskussion in Deutschland im Anschluss an die anthropologische Problematik Wolf Singers
    Takahiro KIRIHARA
    2010 Volume 2010 Issue 61 Pages 197-212_L13
    Published: 2010
    Released on J-STAGE: January 18, 2011
    JOURNAL FREE ACCESS
    Nach Wolf Singer, einem der führenden Hirnforscher in Deutschland, ist der freie Wille, der ihm zufolge eine „Illusion“ sein kann, einer der „subjektiven Aspekte von Bewusstsein“, der in der kulturellen Evolution der Menschheit entstanden ist. Unsere Erfahrung der Freiheit stamme somit daher, dass erstens man seine unbewussten „echten“ Motivationen (Gehirnfunktionen) nicht kennt und sie sich darum nachträglich als selbstbestimmt vorstellt, und dass zweitens man in seiner Kindheit mit Hilfe der sozialen Kommunikation von anderen Personen dahingehend erzogen wird, sich selbstbewusst und verantwortlich zu verhalten.
    Singer hat jedoch zugleich seinen eigenen Freiheitsbegriff, der z.B. bei einem Vortrag von ihm im Jahr 2005 vorkommt. Er scheint nämlich den (illusionären bzw. hypothetischen) Zustand, in dem man fähig wäre, die Notwendigkeit seiner Motivationen völlig zu durchschauen und dadurch die erkennbaren Optionen durchdenken zu können, für den eigentlichen Sinn der „Freiheit“ zu halten. Dieser Begriff könnte der „epistemologische“ Freiheits-Begriff im Unterschied zum „praktischen“ genannt werden. Bezüglich des praktischen Begriffs schließt Singer die Möglichkeit nicht aus, dass die Freiheit als Grundlage der Verantwortung als illusionär zurückgewiesen und von daher auf der juridischen Ebene statt des üblichen Strafmaßes ein „Verwahrungs- und Schutzmaß“ eingeführt werden könnte, um die Sicherheit der Gesellschaft zu gewährleisten.
    Eine derartig „naturalistische“ Herangehensweise kritisieren Philosophen wie Lutz Wingert oder Jürgen Habermas mit einigem Recht, besonders im Hinblick auf den Mangel an der Zweiten-Personen-Perspektive bei Singer. Der Versuch, wie bei Habermas, aufgrund der Sprachtheorie der „wahren Aussage“ und des „intersubjektiven Konsenses “ die Freiheit der Handelnden zu verteidigen, die nicht auf der „Verursachung“, sondern auf der „Abwägung der Gründe“ basiere, ist einerseits überzeugend. Bezüglich der anthropologischen Problematik (der Suche nach der „Stellung des Menschen in der Welt“), die auch Habermas nicht außer Acht lässt, verliert die Untersuchung Singers zur Evolution der Nervensysteme sowie zur Genealogie des Freiheits-Bewusstseins andererseits kaum an Bedeutung. Es wäre daher auch nötig, sich auf den „holistischen“ Standpunkt zu berufen, von dem aus die Bedeutung der „normativen Freiheit“ des Menschen, der unbezweifelbar auch der Naturnotwendigkeit untersteht, befragt werden kann, damit die geistigen, sozialen bzw. natürlichen Wirklichkeiten nicht nur formell bzw. prozedural, sondern auch substantiell überbrückt werden können.
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  • Shu KONDO
    2010 Volume 2010 Issue 61 Pages 213-226_L13
    Published: 2010
    Released on J-STAGE: January 18, 2011
    JOURNAL FREE ACCESS
    In diesem Aufsatz wird die Seinsart des Mentalen in der Erfahrung untersucht,und zwar im Hinblick auf das Paralogismuskapitel der ersten Auflage der Kritik der reinen Vernunft. Bekanntlich zog Davidson Kants Freiheitsbegriff zur Etablierung seines ‘anomalous monism’ heran, und damit stellt sich die Frage, ob es einen Unterschied zwischen den beiden Ansichten gibt oder nicht. Die Auffassung, in welcher der Dualismus von Natur und Freiheit eindimensional reduziert wird, legt es nahe, Kant und Davidson in enge Beziehung setzen, denn diese Sichtweise ähnelt der Zwei-Perspektiven-Interpretation von Kants transzendentalem Idealismus. Es ist allerdings schwierig, Kants Freiheitsbegriff als solchen mit dem ‘anomism of the mental’ zu verbinden. Es muss beachtet werden, dass die Überwindung des Cartesianischen Dualismus von Leib und Seele durch Kants Dualismus von Natur und Freiheit die Vereinigung der äußeren und inneren Erfahrung, d. i. des Materialen und des Mentalen bedeutet. Wenn das transzendentale Subjekt sich in der individuellen Bewusstseinserfahrung befindet, dann soll ein ‘mental event’, so Davidson, mit der inneren Erfahrung korrespondieren. In der Tat kann man, nach Dieter Sturma, unter einem Quasiobjekt das Bewusstsein verstehen, d.h. letztlich den Referenten, welcher nicht den begrifflichen Status eines möglichen Gegenstandes der Erfahrung besitzt und mit dem doch eine Differenzierungs- bzw. Objektivierungsleistung verbunden sein muss. Dieses Selbstbewusstsein ist nichts anders als das transzendentale Subjekt. Folglich kann das transzendentale Subjekt, als die Perspektive der dritten Person oder des Anderen, intentional und somit auf nicht-empirische Weise der Erfahrung immanent sein. Alle Erfahrungen des transzendentalen Subjekts sind zugleich eine intentionale Ganzheit der Vorstellungen, worin das Innere, als die individuelle Bewusstseinserfahrung, kontextabhängig beschrieben wird. An diesem Punkt muss Kant mit Davidson in Zusammenhang gebracht werden.
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  • Shin SAKURAGI
    2010 Volume 2010 Issue 61 Pages 227-243_L14
    Published: 2010
    Released on J-STAGE: January 18, 2011
    JOURNAL FREE ACCESS
    Reflecting the variety of memory's roles, memory explains a vast variety of things. This paper begins with investigation into an interesting type of explanation which involves the relation of memory to other psychological states/events. “Why am I struck by the thought that I have to buy a birthday gift for my wife today? Because I remember that today is her birthday.” This is a causal explanation to the extent that it conveys causal information about its explanandum. However, very frequently, an explanation by appeal to one's memory is not a singular causal explanation, but rather a dispositional explanation. Thus, we often explain things by citing memory as a dispositional state, namely, a dispositional memory.
    Traditionally, dispositional concepts are analyzed in terms of a subjunctive conditional statement specifying how the disposition is manifested. However, as I discuss in this paper, if we adopt this naïve picture, and analyze dispositional memory simply in terms of a subjunctive conditional, how explanatory information is conveyed by appeal to dispositional memory will remain inexplicable. When an appeal to my memory successfully explains my being struck by a thought, the explanation suggests that my past plays an important causal role in the explanandum event in a specific way. But, as I argue, an appeal to a subjunctive conditional statement cannot always convey the same information. My solution is simply to adopt an indicative clause in the analysans to capture the causal implication. To exemplify my proposal, in the final part of this paper, I focus on one specific type of memory, propositional memory, and outline its analysis.
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  • Kenji SHIBATA
    2010 Volume 2010 Issue 61 Pages 245-260_L15
    Published: 2010
    Released on J-STAGE: January 18, 2011
    JOURNAL FREE ACCESS
    Réflexions sur le «modèle de la nature humaine (humanæ naturæ exemplar)»dans la quatrième partie de l'Éthique

    Le «modèle de la nature humaine», alors qu'il ne fait qu'une brève apparition dans la préface de la quatrième partie de l'Éthique, est de la première importance pour connaître de façon approfondie ce que nous apprend ce livre prodigieux. Tout en débarrassant sa perspective de toutes les fins, Spinoza nous propose ce «modèle»comme un idéal auquel nous pouvons aspirer. À premier vue il semble que Spinoza fasse une concession à la transcendance malgré sa confiance en l'immanence puisque le modèle de l'homme est censé avoir pour fonction de normaliser nos activités. Mais en fait, il n'en est rien, car cet idéal ne contient rien de normatif et par conséquent il ne réprime pas nos activités libres.
    Plusieurs questions se posent alors. En premier lieu, comment constituer ce«modèle» de manière à ce qu'il ne contienne rien de normatif? Après avoir apporté une solution à ce problème, nous en abordons un autre plus difficile, c'est-à-dire celui qui concerne sa fonction pratique: si ce n'est pas un modèle en un sens normatif, quelle est la signification du fait qu'il nous soit présenté comme tel? Nous trouvons la réponse dans la théorie spinoziste de l'émotion qui porte pour nom l'imitation des sentiments.
    Nous concluons enfin que le «modèle de la nature humaine» est un idéal immanent qui affirme le désir de chaque homme en le posant comme idéal.
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  • An Introduction to the Play-Acting Theory of Action
    Hitoshi TAMURA
    2010 Volume 2010 Issue 61 Pages 261-276_L16
    Published: 2010
    Released on J-STAGE: January 18, 2011
    JOURNAL FREE ACCESS
    A self-sacrificial action is not consistent with rational decision-making. If an agent decides to take the rational course of action, that is, the best action among the options, the decision is not truly self-sacrificial. The agent has sought the best option and, therefore, nothing is really sacrificed. We need, then, a scheme other than that of rational decision making to explain self-sacrifice. I propose a theory which explains a self-sacrificial action as a kind of play-acting. In a play, an actor may take a role that is undesirable in real life. In a social situation involving self-sacrifice, the agent must accept such a course of action as undesirable but inevitable for anyone in the same situation. In a sense, the agent is coerced into playing an undesirable role. We cannot but see the agent as accepting it as an actor would. In instances of sacrifice, such as the sacrificial rite of the Ainu Bear Festival (IYOMANTE) or the legend of Iphigenia at Aulis, there is a traditional, social scenario that prescribes proper action. The self-sacrificial agent accepts such action in the same way that an actor accepts an unattractive role. The agent will intentionally perform the action; however, this is only in response to the prescription of the scenario. In other words, it is not based on an authentic decision, but on a play-acting decision. In this way, we can explain an act of self-sacrifice that implies a moral split for the agent. Contemporary theories of action, such as G. E. M. Anscombe's intellectualist theory or Donald Davidson's voluntarist-like theory, take it for granted that in any situation an agent is an integrated person with no moral split in principle. Moral splits, or dilemmas, are not, however, rare in everyday life. I put forward the play-acting theory of action as an alternative to contemporary theories.
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  • mathématique de Jean Cavaillès
    Daisuké NAKAMURA
    2010 Volume 2010 Issue 61 Pages 277-292_L17
    Published: 2010
    Released on J-STAGE: January 18, 2011
    JOURNAL FREE ACCESS
    La position philosophique de Jean Cavaillès (1903-1944), dans son ouvrage posthume Sur la logique et la théorie de la science, est considérée généralement comme «spinoziste», position qui n'apparaît guère dans sa thèse principale Méthode axiomatique et formalisme. Notre objectif est ici de montrer en quoi consiste le spinozisme de Cavaillès, en insistant sur la transition entre ces deux écrits. Nous examinons d'abord le «formalisme modifié», conception défendue par Cavaillès dans sa thèse principale sur le fondement des mathématiques. Cette conception s'organise selon deux axes. Le premier axe concerne la théorie de la généralisation qui montre la fécondité du processus des mathématiques. Il faut cependant justifier l'introduction d'une nouvelle théorie qui présuppose l'infini actuel. Le deuxième axe concerne l'«expérience sur le signe», qui joue précisément ce rôle de justification. Selon Cavaillès, c'est le signe qui est la condition de la possibilité de l'expérience et le «geste» ou l'expérience sur le signe justifie toutes les théories des mathématiques. Il défend par ailleurs l'idée d'une transformation du monde par les mathématiques. En développant cette position, Cavaillès aboutit, dans son ouvrage posthume, à «la philosophie du concept». Le rôle de justification d'une nouvelle théorie étant absorbé dans le devenir des mathématiques elles-mêmes, l'expérience se transforme en un simple aspect de ce dernier, l'autre aspect résidant dans la transformation du monde. C'est ainsi que la philosophie du concept apparaît comme une théorie du sens qui analyse le devenir comme auto-développement des concepts pour élucider des états du monde ainsi que l'élargissement de l'expérience. Nous interpréterons enfin le spinozisme de Cavaillès de deux manières : l'auto-développement des concepts rappelle «l'idée de l'idée» de Spinoza ; le parallélisme entre deux aspects du devenir correspond à celui de Spinoza entre l'ordre des choses et celle des idées.
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  • the Problem of the “Sensible Knave”
    Naoki YAJIMA
    2010 Volume 2010 Issue 61 Pages 293-307_L18
    Published: 2010
    Released on J-STAGE: January 18, 2011
    JOURNAL FREE ACCESS
    The question of “why be moral?” has been the leading problem in every moral philosophy since Socrates. Hume tackles this problem in the concluding chapter of An Enquiry concerning the Principle of Morals. Many commentators take it that Hume does not commit himself deeply to refuting the “sensible knave,” who is always seeking to commit injustice for personal gain while pretending to be a moral person. I maintain, however, that it is possible to read a fully convincing response to this problem into Hume's theory. The significance of this problem to Hume is, more than anything, its connection to the fierce controversy of Hume's time between the moral sense theories and the egoist moral theories exemplified by Hobbes and Mandeville.
    Hume presents mainly two grounds to deny the claim of the “sensible knave.” One is that he is unlikely to successfully follow through with his wicked plan because his wisdom fails to bear up to public scrutiny, and the second is that if he is successful in his injust action, by exchanging the most precious treasure, that is reflection on his own character, for the worthless rubbish that he mistakes for his private interest, he is decisively defeated. I clarify that Hume's claim must be understood based on his comprehensive theory of custom. As moral individuals, we are dependent on the general perception of natural, psychological and moral things, a perception which can be mutually understood among members of a stable community. Moral perceptions also rely on the same psychological mechanism of human nature. Our human nature exerts the same binding force on moral perceptions as natural perceptions do. In this way, I seek to show that Hume's entire theory of the Treatise provides a naturalistic foundation for morality which culminates in the authority of government.
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  • Motivation in Ethik, oder principium executionis?
    Saneyuki YAMATSUTA
    2010 Volume 2010 Issue 61 Pages 309-320_L19
    Published: 2010
    Released on J-STAGE: January 18, 2011
    JOURNAL FREE ACCESS
    In jüngster Zeit ist „Achtung“ einer der meistdiskutierten Begriffe in der Erforschung der kantischen Ethik geworden. Die „Achtung“ wird dabei als Kants Lehre der moralischen Motivation nicht zuletzt im Zusammenhang mit den gegenwärtigen Debatten um die Moralphilosophie interpretiert. Daran anschließend analysiert die vorliegende Abhandlung den Begriff der „Achtung“ als moralische Motivation, oder in Kants Worten, als moralische Triebfeder, deren Sinn aber anhand der Texte Kants erst noch genauer zu untersuchen ist.
    In den 1770er Jahren wird von Kant die moralische Triebfeder als „principium der Execution oder Leistung“ benannt, wobei sie das „principium der Diiudication“ ersetzt, um die sittliche Handlung zu verwirklichen. Allein diese Unterscheidung der beiden Prinzipien verschwindet in den ethischen Hauptschriften der achtziger Jahre, als der Begriff der Achtung für das Gesetz als moralische Triebfeder in den Vordergrund tritt. In der Kritik der praktischen Vernunft wird aber nicht nur die Achtung für das moralischen Gesetz, sondern auch das Gesetz selbst als die einzige moralische Triebfeder genannt. In der einschlägigen Forschung (wie z.B. bei L.W. Beck, H. Allison, A. Reath) wird daher diskutiert, welche Konzeption der moralischen Triebfeder Kant in seiner kritischen Ethik entwickele.
    Der Aufsatz vertritt die These, dass in der kritischen Philosophie die Achtung nicht mehr als Ersatz für das moralische Gesetz verstanden wird, wie das principium der Execution, sondern als Wirkung des Gesetzes selbst beim Menschen. Als Beleg dafür dienen hier die Schriften der neunziger Jahre, besonders Über den Gemeinspruch, worin Kant in einer Entgegnung zu Christian Garve auf das Problem der moralischen Triebfeder zurückgreift. Im Gegensatz zu Garve behauptet Kant, dass die moralische Triebfeder nicht auf das moralische Gesetz abziele, sondern aus dem Gesetz einfließe. Damit kann die Achtung als ein wesentlicher Bestandteil des moralischen Gesetzes bzw. der Autonomieethik verstanden werden.
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