Over the past twenty years or so, the study of Japanese history in Japan has been dominated by discussions of modernity. Meantime, research on time periods before the early modern period largely vanished, and these periods are dealt with as no more than a discourse of the past created by modernity. Shaking tremendously this orientation to historical origin was the critical discourse on modern nationalism. With the works by Benedict Anderson, Eric Hobsbawm, Sakai Naoki, and Nishikawa Nagao, it became clear that what we tacitly assumed as the Japanese ethnic nation is the nation imagined/invented in modernity, and the ancient Japan that people had debated so earnestly turned out to be no more than a discourse conceivable only in the context of the rise of modern nationalism. Through the investigation into the early modern society, it becomes possible to seize the possibility of discovering a number of margins that shot through modern societies, and the possibility of overturning some modern inequalities. Of course, it behooves us not to forget that in those blanks also exists the danger of producing inequality in society, a danger more serious than the factitiousness of the Western, modern principle of equality.

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The Governor General of Choson tried to direct Korean religions and Christian missionaries to be pro-Japan through acts and regulations such as "Jisatsurei" (The Temple Act) and "Fukyo Kisoku" (The Regulation of Religions) in Korea during the colonial period (1910-1945). The authorities also aimed to have Japanese religions be introduced and permeate into the Korean Peninsula by a policy of extension of suzerain. This article attempts to survey the religious policies and activities of Japanese and Korean Buddhism in the period of "Cultural Rule" which started after the 3.1. Independence Movement, and relaxed the freedom of association and publication as well. We will look at the basic concept of religious policy and the intervention with regard to religions by the Governor General of Choson, the actual situation of the social activities of Japanese Buddhism and Korean Buddhism's internal movement, and negotiation on these matters with Japanese Buddhism and authorities.

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After a long tradition of "non-dualism of state and religion" in the Islamic world - with peculiar ideas of state, religion, and state-religion relationships - Islamic countries in general and Middle Eastern states in particular accepted the nation-state system through colonization and later independence. In the Arab states, however, the nation-state did not take firm roots. Arab nationalism utilized the concept of ummah to address the Arab nation, aiming at the unification of Arab lands. Because of this, the subsequent decline of Arab nationalism and the ascent of Islamic revivalism brought back the Islamic Ummah as a transnational force in the political map of the region. Globalization only accelerated the process by facilitating a globalized Islam. The Islamic Revolution in Iran, the re-Islamization of Saudi Arabia, and the appearance of armed non-governmental organizations such al-Qaeda and the "Islamic State" in Iraq and Syria have been transforming the state, religion, and state-religion relationships in the region.

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The palace and the temple of the state-god Assur in Assyria were separate but closely related institutions. The territory governed by the palace ideologically belonged to the state-god, as indicated by its name, "the land of Assur." His cult in the temple was supported by the provinces that formed "the land of Assur" by way of "fixed offerings" to the temple: the provinces prepared foodstuff necessary for the cult. Furthermore it seems likely that the regime of the "fixed offerings" was managed by direct subordinates of the king, who theoretically also held the post of the priest of Assur.

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Cet article a pour but d'analyser quand et comment l'islam est devenu une religion en France, au terme d'un long parcours historique. L'existence des musulmans en France peut remonter tres loin, jusqu'en 732, mais l'islam a longtemps ete percu comme un ≪autre≫ exterieur a l'Europe, jouant a ce titre un role de miroir de l'Occident. Le tournant decisif remonte a l'epoque coloniale, lorsque l'islam a commence a etre administre et controle comme ≪culte≫. Plusieurs chercheurs se disputent autour de la date de l'acte de naissance du culte musulman au cours du XIX^e siecle. La loi de 1905 sur la separation consacre bien la liberte religieuse, mais son application formelle en Algerie n'empeche pas de continuer les controles sur l'islam. Ce dernier est ainsi devenu une ≪religion≫ en France dans le cadre d'une politique considerant les musulmans comme attaches a un culte. Mais les limites de cette approche apparaissent en meme temps, car l'islam ne se reduit pas exclusivement a cet aspect cultuel. Il est a noter cependant que, meme s'il existe des inegalites structurelles pour l'islam du point de vue juridique, la laicite fonctionne au niveau de l'ideal comme principe de l'egalite entre les cultes.

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It is widely accepted that the basic principle to be aware of when considering the issue of state and religion is "separation of state and religion." However, "separation of state and religion" in the Japanese sense belongs to a unique, particular type, definitely different to that of the Western sense. Furthermore, the principle itself is being called into question in the West. Against this background, this paper focuses on the "separation of church and state" in the U.S. in an attempt to identify any ideological problems behind it. Chapter 1 discusses how the principle of "separation of state and religion" is understood in Japan by referring to relevant legal precedents and academic theories, and classifies Western variations, in order to identify the characteristics of the Japanese understanding of this principle. Chapter 2 examines the U.S. Constitution, which is said to be the first constitution in the world to incorporate the principle of "separation of church and state," placing special focus on separatism, which has had a huge influence on Japan's legal precedents and academic theories. Chapter 3 discusses changes that have occurred since the 1980s, clarifies the principles and doctrines concerning state and religion that have been identified so far, as well as the ideologies behind them, and highlights problematic issues.

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