The purpose of this paper is to address the current issues faced by teacher education research by studying teachers’ life courses. 1. While examining the issue of female teachers in their 50s from the perspective of gender equality, the following observations were made. In Japan, there are very few women appointed to administrative positions such as principals; women are heavily burdened with housework and child-rearing after marriage; school administrators tend to be male teachers, who can devote themselves to work without being responsible for their households; and, thus, this has a negative impact on female teachers developing their careers and assuming positions of responsibility. 　　 To improve the working conditions of school teachers—which often involve excessive workload and long hours—it is necessary to re-examine the following from the perspective of gender equality: 1) ways in which male teachers live and work at home and in the workplace, and 2) teacher education research on the career development of female teachers. 2. When examining the issues faced by teachers in their 20s from the perspective of their independence in this education specialist profession, the following points are revealed. Firstly, they have engaged in many experiential activities in the field during training and during their student days. They have gained experience in accordance with teacher-training policies. However, while such training helps them develop practical skills, they still have doubts about the existing systems and practices. Such training thwarts the development of the skills and attitudes required to change these existing systems. 　　 Entering an era where change occurs rapidly, it is necessary to have the skills to continuously evaluate systems and practices and improve upon them, rather than adapt to them. It is necessary to review the purpose, method, and content of guidance given in teacher education, and to reconsider teacher education research related to the development of young teachers’ early careers.

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　 This paper examines recent discussions on the professionality of teachers and the reform trends of specialized subjects for teacher education at faculty of education in Japan. 　　 The discussion about professionality of teachers is both an old and a new problem and an important, modern topic that requires strong consideration. In this paper, after summarizing the discussions on the professionality of teachers, I consider the reform of the concepts and contents, through debates and trial cases, of specialized subjects related to teacher education in recent years in Japan. 　　 There, the necessity of philosophical consideration like a democratic professionality regarding the professionality of teachers is raised, and the academic uniqueness and appropriateness of the specialized subjects for subjects on teacher education at faculty of education in Japan have being argued. I have attempted to clarify these issues through the exploration and consideration of education faculty practices in Japan. The results could help build the future of professionality of teachers

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　　 As clarified by the article by Tomiji NAGAO, the first president of the Japanese Society for the Study on Teacher Education (JSSTE), the JSSTE positioned “teacher education” within the “teaching of educational studies” at the time of its foundation in 1991. Further, the Society has consistently attempted to place practice in the context of research and promote the development of academic research from practice. 　　 However, the circumstances surrounding teacher education practice and research have been changing dramatically, particularly in recent years. In Japan, teacher education has been standardized under the influence of global neoliberal “educational reforms,” which are reflected in “teacher development indicators” and the “national curriculum for teacher training in universities“. At the time of preparation of the “Disciplinary Reference Points for Curriculum Design and Quality Assurance of University Education—Education”’ by the Science Council of Japan, scholarly discussions focused on the relationship between teacher education and educational studies and that between practice and research in teacher education. The author considers it necessary for the JSSTE to examine the quality and level of teacher education research, particularly practical research, and provide points of discussion on teacher education and educational studies to the academia.

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This paper confirms the characteristics of teachers’ perceptions of the teaching profession. Further, it considers the correlation between such characteristics and various measures for teacher education reform since 2000. 　　 The characteristics of teachers’ perceptions are as follows. 1. They deem that they are “professionals with diverse specialties.” 2. Being workers, they experience a desire to limit their duties. 　　 Specifically, their consciousness as workers was considered to be influenced by the characteristics of the deprofessionalization of teacher education reform. 　　 Conversely, there were concerns that the awareness of “wide range professionals” also involved the following problems. With the increased participation of parents and residents in school education, the recognition of “teachers are professionals” has come to be shared. However, faculty members are not actively interested in quality assurance as professionals since professionalism is shared, rather than the actual conditions. 　　 Additionally, the teacher standard index and the core-curriculum of the teaching profession are formulated in teacher education in the “accountability model.” Sincere and enthusiastic teachers believe that responding to these and receiving high marks consist in “guaranteeing professionalism.” In this process, there was concern that the greater the number of teachers who actively work on teacher evaluation, the more heteronomous it becomes. 　　 Hence, it was highlighted that the “accountability model” of teacher education may hinder the autonomous movement of teachers toward securing their professionalism.

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This paper attempts to clarify the contributions of the educational policies of the past 30 years aimed at innovative education using new technology to teacher education. In doing so, it focuses on analyzing the changes in the requirements for teachers as stated in the Council documents and other sources as a research method. 　　 The results showed that there has been a shift, 1) from teachers being able to handle information equipment and use it to teach certain content effectively, to fostering the ability to use information in individual children. Additionally, there has been a shift 2) from teachers being able to design and teach classes that provide new learning opportunities for each student using information and communications technology (ICT), etc., to having the ability to analyze and assess the learning styles of the children using data, and to teach in an appropriate manner for each student. However, the expected image of teachers and classes amid changing times has been inconsistent between policymakers and teachers and teacher educators. 　　 To resolve the issues arising from 30 years of disagreement between both sides, it is necessary to: 1) distinguish between essential and transitional issues during the transition period; 2) carefully follow consensus building procedures; 3) promote research-informed methods for improving practices; and 4) mention the relationship between innovative teaching using new technology and the pedagogy of teacher education.

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Data-driven education and its aims of adaptive learning are substantially transforming the roles of schools and teachers. It has not only introduced drastic changes to pedagogical methods but also impacted the utilization of time and space at schools. It has also altered the goals and assessment in education. Therefore, this paper examined the impact of the shift to data-driven education on the role and development of teachers from the perspectives of policies, research trends, and teaching practices. The results of the study yielded the identification of three significant roles which teachers will be expected to play in the future: the collector and analyst of data on learning and teaching, the examiner of the educational value of teaching practices that cannot be reflected in the data, and the coordinator who shares anew the public role previously fulfilled by schools and teachers with children, their parents, and the community. However, such roles involve intensive responsibilities and could increase the difficulties of the teaching profession if we depend only on teachers to fulfill them. In such a context, studies on teacher education confront the need to redefine the roles played by teachers in public education.

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　　 This paper aims to clarify the meaning of general pedagogical knowledge (GPK) and its defining elements, examine its relation to generality, context, and current issues, and propose appropriate solutions. To this end, this article (1) describes existing GPK concepts, (2) examines the changes made to them and the reasons behind such changes, while comparing concepts from various international and quantitative surveys. Finally, (3) it discusses the implications of such changes for teacher education. 　　 GPK is generally considered a part of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK) research and is defined as knowledge independently influencing PCK. The elements that comprise GPK tend to be broad. In addition to “pedagogical principles and techniques” (Wilson et al., 1987) as well as “strategies of classroom management and organization” (Shulman, 1987), GPK incorporates learners and educational aims. With the use of international surveys and advancements in empirical research in recent years, other components (e.g., motivation, evaluation, and student characteristics) have also been included. Despite being characterized as procedural knowledge, the aspect of declarative knowledge has now been included in the definition. 　　 However, these trends pose two challenges. First, from the perspective of measurability, the concept of GPK has become overly generalized, consequently ignoring individuals and contexts, and only representing declarative knowledge. Hence, it raises the question of whether GPK is procedural knowledge that could be contextualized, or declarative knowledge that could be generalized. Second, from the perspective of the teaching profession, if it seems to discard context and individuality, GPK may lead to a denial of teaching professionalism in its dependence on the context. 　　 To address this problem, it is necessary to position GPK as knowledge held by individual teachers, considering the changes in the components of GPK. Additionally, it is necessary to reconceptualize GPK by domain so that it includes both procedural and declarative knowledge. If this is successfully executed, the GPK concept is expected to engender a paradigm shift in teacher knowledge research, in teaching expertise, as well as in the overall teaching-learning process.

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This study aims to explore the professionality of teachers, focusing on the kindergarten primary period, by clarifying the characteristics of kindergarten primary teacher training reform in the United States in the 1920s. For this purpose, this study analyzed the discussions and teacher training curriculum models of the International Kindergarten Union （IKU). 　　 In the U.S., conventional kindergarten and elementary school teacher training programs were reorganized in the 1920s at various state normal schools, and kindergarten primary teacher training was established and expanded. Regarding the curriculum structure, the issue lied in how to improve academic standards while positioning the three subject groups: Froebelian subjects, subjects of psychology and child studies, and elementary education and pedagogy subjects. 　　 Hence, the curriculum model analysis for kindergarten primary teacher training created by IKU revealed the following. First, the training period was extended, the number of hours in practical training courses was reduced, and new general education courses were established to raise academic standards. Second, Froebelian content became a part of the separate courses’ content and was reconsidered from the perspective of elementary education and pedagogy. Third, the theoretical subjects were specialized in kindergarten primary education. Fourth, since no specialized subject matter courses were offered, the emphasis was placed on organizing the subject matter to be presented formally. 　　 In conclusion, the IKU’s kindergarten primary teacher training reform was an attempt at repositioning the contents of kindergarten and elementary teacher training to focus on the kindergarten primary period, while improving academic standards to strengthen its character as a higher education institution. The driving idea was not to connect kindergarten learning to elementary school subject learning, but rather that learning in the kindergarten primary period would form the basis for more differentiated subject learning in later years. This has implications for Japan, which distinguishes between the professionality of kindergarten teachers and that of elementary school teachers.

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This paper aims to understand and evaluate the structure of teachers’ learning in the community, as discussed by Shulman. The first section examines why Shulman focused on the community. It clarifies that he drew from Vygotsky’s concept, the “zone of proximal development,” and considered Schwab’s community theory of teacher development. The second section examines how Shulman regarded community as based on schools, while creating his “Fostering a Community of Teachers as Learners” project. In this project, he used four elements from the learning principles: activity or agency, reflection or metacognition, collaboration, and formation of a supportive community or a sustaining culture, thus creating a foundational principle for the development of the well-known teachers’ learning community framework. In the third section, Shulman’s case method is analyzed, focusing on creating a community of teachers. Cases enable teachers to communicate with their colleagues in an “invisible college.” Therefore, it becomes evident that the case is a tool creating a community beyond time and space. 　　 When both school-based and case-based communities work well, the learning process for teachers in that community can successfully adapt to the existing teacher culture. This has the following implications for theory and practice in Japan: first, the concept of community is extended through distinction between the substantive community, such as a school, and the functional community that emerges through ongoing communication. Second, the Japanese culture of “teacher narrative description” can be reevaluated as a discussion of teacher learning in the community. Third, reading and writing teacher narrative descriptions can create a functional professional community, which would contribute to establishing professionalism as well as standards of professionalism.

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Religious schools face contemporary challenges. In Japanese Christian schools, religious education has been weakening, and the number of Christian teachers is decreasing. This study aims to clarify how religious studies teachers shape their Christian educational practices and secure their teacher autonomy when their school curricula strictly regulate their practices. Specifically, it focuses on the conflicts that religious studies teachers experience in exercising their education. In this study, Ando’s framework (2005) for teachers’ conflicts and conflict coping styles was used to analyze the teachers’ narratives. Data were collected from two Christian schools conducting semi-structured interviews with ten religious studies teachers. The analysis revealed that the religious studies teachers tended to face three types of conflicts, related to either 1) religion classes, 2) student guidance, or 3) relationships with fellow teachers. Further, the religious studies teachers were attempting to cope with these conflicts by recognizing and distinguishing some self-images: the professional self as a member of their school, and the personal self described as “clergy” or “believer.” Hence, religion studies teachers may face multiple facets of conflict. These conflicts among religious studies teachers are found to be associated with structural factors, including negative connotations of religious matters in Japanese society, school systems and rules imposed on teachers, and the distinctive nature of religious education at schools in Japan.

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This paper provides a theoretical basis for examining “exclusion/inclusion” in teacher education, which has been attracting attention in recent years. Despite this interest, opportunities to learn about minorities are scarce in teacher education. In Japan, the “poverty/exclusion theory” centered on the sociology of education has identified the exclusion of the children living in poverty both inside and outside of schools. However, in teacher education research, few have considered a theoretical perspective that captures the multilayered structure of “exclusion/ inclusion.” 　　 In this paper, I examine the arguments of Thomas S. Popkewitz, an American education scholar, focusing on how he discusses “inclusion/exclusion” in teacher education and reconstructs his argument. Therefore, I argue that Popkewitz views teacher education as an activity of “governance” and that terms such as “alchemy” and “double gesture” capture the multilayered and complex interweaving of “exclusion/inclusion.” Based on his argument, I examine current Japanese teacher education. Consequently, I discover a situation that coincides with the “double gesture” highlighted by Popkewitz on the positions of “poverty.” 　　 This study is organized as follows. First, I focus on existing teacher education research on the theme of “exclusion/inclusion,” especially the “poverty/exclusion theory,” and clarify the problems with the help of the debate. To overcome these problems, I consider Popkewitz’s argument, using Popkewitz’s term “double gesture” as a starting point for a discussion of the multiple layers of “exclusion/inclusion” in teacher education. Additionally, by connecting Popkewitz’s argument to the debate on poverty studies, this paper elaborates on the perspective of understanding the positioning of “poverty” in teacher education. As an example of examining this framework’s possibilities and limitations, I examine the positioning of “poverty” in the Core Curriculum for Teacher Education compiled in 2017. Finally, I discuss the direction required for future teacher education research.

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With the increasing casualization of teachers, casual teacher labor problems and teacher professionality have become highly debated topics in policymaking and research. Despite political and academic interests, the casualization of teachers has not been prevented. On the contrary, it has increased significantly. Previous studies have highlighted that casualization results from addressing the change in “fiscal conditions” and “school problems.” Nevertheless, few empirical analyses of the factors using nationwide data exist. Thus, this article examines the reasons for the casualization of teachers in Japan, focusing on “fiscal conditions” and “school problems.” This study employs panel data analysis using a fixed-effect model. Additionally, it considers a division of casual teachers by school level (elementary and lower secondary school) and working status (full-time and part-time). 　　 The results illustrate that the casualization of teachers in Japan is increased by both “fiscal conditions” and “school problems.” On the aspect of “fiscal conditions,” it could be deduced that the effect of deterioration in the expenditure structure is more prominent than the revenue structure, regarding the exploitation of casual teachers. Therefore, casual teachers could be perceived as “adjustment valves” to secure financial resources. Moreover, casual teachers are employed as “adjustment valves” for welfare reasons in Japan, a nation with a super-aged society. This finding is also crucial for international research on the casualization of teachers. 　　 Regarding the analysis on the “school problem” aspect, the factors of casualization differ among school levels and working status. Casual teachers are employed based on the types of school problems. Thus, casual teachers are seen as “countermeasures.” However, perceiving casual teachers in this manner causes a dilemma; while casual teachers are instrumental in ensuring school educational quality, casualization simultaneously creates working conditions in which teachers are unable to fully demonstrate their professionality. To tackle this dilemma, it is necessary to consider the precariousness and working conditions of casual teachers.

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