The present study investigated the effects of two types of cognition of objective tasks (i.e., reward expectation and performance pressure) on employee accomplishment of extra-objective tasks (e.g., organizational citizenship behavior) under management by objectives. Based on regulatory focus theory (Higgins, 1997), we hypothesized that reward expectation for objective tasks would increase accomplishment of extra-objective tasks, whereas performance pressure for objective tasks would decrease it. A take-home questionnaire was administered to 112 Japanese employees. The results of structural equation modeling confirmed our hypotheses. Reward expectations for objective tasks increased subjective levels of accomplishment of extra-objective tasks, whereas performance pressure for objective tasks decreased the ratio of time spent on extra-objective tasks to total work hours. Furthermore, the former relationship was mediated by the enjoyment of performing extra-objective tasks, whereas the latter was mediated by the perceptions of resource pressure by performing objective tasks.

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The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between relational efficacy and concern about help-seeking from same-sex friends, given the fear of negative response and stigmatization. Sixty-one same-sex friends were participated in this study. The results were analyzed using a multilevel structural equation model that indicated: (a) high relational efficacy leads to low concern for help seeking, for fear of negative response and for stigmatization; (b) perceived relational efficacy decreases fear of negative response, controlled for relational longevity. These results offer implications toward developing a new strategy for decreasing concern about help seeking.

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The experimental results on lexical decision times for Japanese homophones with multiple mates are inconsistent. Kawakami (2006) and Tamaoka (2007) have reported longer lexical decisions for homophones than for nonhomophones, which are called homophone effects, while Hino, Kusunose, Lupker, and Jared (2013) showed shorter latencies, i.e., facilitatory homophone effects. This study explored the possibility that extremely low frequency words in Hino et al.’s (2013) stimuli produced this aberrant finding. In Experiment 1, we replicated Hino et al.’s (2013) experiment with undergraduate participants. The error rates were extremely high, which correlated with their frequencies as well as their lexical decision time, and produced inconsistency in the results. In Experiment 2, faculty members, who presumably had a large vocabulary, performed the same experiment. Facilitatory homophone effects were not found for homophones with multiple mates, and their latencies did not differ from those for nonhomophones. These findings suggest that extremely low frequency stimulus words can alter findings on homophone processing. Finally, the possibility that high phonological familiarities for homophones with multiple mates might shorten their latencies was discussed.

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The present study aimed to explore the relationships between human social network size and sociocognitive ability of reading emotions from other’s eyes as an index of social intelligence. Human social networks have been known to constitute successive layers which correspond to decreasing levels of emotional closeness and frequency of contact (Dunbar, 2014). Here I report on preliminary evidence for the relationships between the ability to read emotions from other’s eyes (measured by Reading-the-Mind-in-the-Eyes Test; RMET) and the size of three layers of respondents’ social network in two Japanese undergraduate samples (total N = 264). There was a positive association between Asian RMET score and the size of related/unrelated support clique (the innermost network consisting of people whom one would seek advice or support in times of crises) in one of two samples. On the other hand, theoretically assumed relationships of Asian RMET score with the size of the outermost layer were not confirmed. These results suggest the important role that reading emotions from other’s eyes play in creating and maintaining core social networks.

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Existing research have indicated that positive participation in class of elementary school pupils, including ‘paying attention and listening actively’, ‘raising the hand and contributing ideas’, and ‘preparing for class and completing homework’, was positively associated with their motivation. The present study focused on changes in both motivation and pupil’s activities in the classroom during a one year period, and investigated relationships among variables affecting these changes. Pupils (n=411; 3rd to 6th grade) participated in two surveys over an interval of one year. They completed a questionnaire on motivation and positive class participation. Results of latent change score modeling indicated the following: (a) level of motivation was positively associated with the level of all types of positive class participation; (b) level of motivation was negatively correlated with changes in paying attention and listening actively; and (c) change in motivation was positively related to changes in paying attention and listening actively, raising the hand and contributing ideas, whereas it was unrelated to preparing for class and completing homework. The effect of interventions on pupil’s motivation for positive class participation was discussed.

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