Fangji (boi in Japanese) is one of the main crude drugs that has been used in China and Japan. The crude drug name and original plant of the medicine is different in each country. We previously elucidated that boi is correct notation for this medicine; however the reason the original plant has been confused is not clear. In this paper, we investigated ancient medical literature and elucidated historical changes of the original plants of kanboi and mokuboi. As a result, in China, we found that the root of Sinomenium acutum was used as kanboi from the Later-Han to Yuan dynasty, and the origin was changed to the root of Cocculus orbiculatus after the Ming dynasty. On the otherhand, the root of Cocculus orbiculatus was used as mokuboi after the Later-Han dynasty, and then the medicine was changed to the ground part of the same plant after the Tang dynasty. Meanwhile, in Japan, we also found that Cocculus orbiculatus was used as boi in the Heian era. In addition, we found that Sinomenium acutum and Cocculus orbiculatus were used as kanboi and mokuboi, respectively, in the Edo era.

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Recent Japanese and Chinese pharmacopoeias prescribe that ginseng is the root of Panax ginseng C.A. Meyer of the Araliaceae family. However, in a herbal book Tujing Bencao written in the Song Dynasty of China, four botanical figures were shown as the origin of ginseng, three of which were apparently of different plants in the Araliaceae family. In this study, the botanical origin of ginseng in the past is herbologically studied, considering the distribution of plants, morphology and pharmacological use of ginseng. The results show that there were two origins of ginseng in the Eastern Han Dynasty of China: one was Panax ginseng growing in the Korean Peninsula and the other was Adenothora tetrathylla of the Campanulaceae family used in eastern China. The root of A. tetrathylla is similar to ginseng and was revised to Panax ginseng later according to pharmacological changes relating to ginseng in China. We also infer that the cultivation of Panax ginseng started in China in the Tang Dynasty.

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In every country there is a great person who improved the state of national pharmacy. Nagayoshi Nagai (1845-1929) of Japan derived ephedrine from Ephedra. Equally, in the United States, William Procter, Jr. (1817-1874) established the Pharmaceutical Association. C. W. Scheele (1742-1786) of Sweden discovered oxygen. F. W. Serturner (1781-1841) of Germany discovered morphine. J. B. Caventou (1795-1877) and P. J. Pelletier (1788-1842) in France isolated quinine. Among the people who played great roles in building pharmacy education and who left a deep impact on various aspects of the pharmacy profession in India, Mahadeva Lal Schroff (1902-1971) occupies the foremost position. However, his contribution to the development of modern pharmacy is not well-known worldwide. Therefore, the author outlines the origin of pharmaceutical education and modern pharmacy education in India. First, the history of pharmacy education in India before and after independence is outlined. Next, his achievements are introduced, looking back on the road he took. Indian pharmacists consider the reason that he is called the father of pharmacy education in India to be his life and personality. This article attempts to describe the history of modern pharmacy in lndia through the life of this honorable figure. Moreover, present-day pharmaceutical education is also examined by touching on its current state after Schroff.

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In 1870s, Dr. Mueller, Germanarmy surgeon, had constructed a new medical system in Japan by the request of new government of Meiji era. He stopped the old Japanese medical style and changed to the German medical system. It also contains the new pharmaceutical actions. In 1872 (Meiji 5), two new military laws were promulgated. In the law of the military hospital in January, three letters below are seen: 1. Medical officer have to make the prescription sheet. 2. Pharmaceutical staff has to dispense precisely. 3. Nursing staff gives the drugs to the patients. In the law of the pharmacy of the army hospital in November, five letters below are seen: 1. Pharmaceutical staff has to dispense precisely. 2. Nobody except pharmacy staff can dispense. The primary medical officer can not, either. 3. Record the dispenses. 4. Record the day of the pharmacy made drugs. 5. In the case of the questions in the prescription, dispense after the solution of those questions. These articles show that each medical staffs have their originality, especially pharmaceutical actions of independence and ethics in modern times of Japan. And these letters have also changed the medicinal actions in the old Japanese medicine to the European style.

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