As the first step in a series of statistical downscaling studies, an objective classification of the sea level pressure (SLP) distribution pattern in the East Asian region was conducted. Patterns classified by this method for the cold half of the year were characterized by referring to their group mean distribution patterns, prevailing seasons, and those obtained by traditional weather classification methods. On the basis of the time series of patterns obtained, the continuity of each pattern and transition between patterns were also investigated quantitatively depending on the probability. This method is based on multivariate analysis, in which a large number of parameters from the SLP field (distribution pattern) are integrated into a limited number of objective indices, and the distribution patterns are classified depending on the indices. First, SLP data at 00UTC for a period of 30 years (1979–2008) from the NCEP/NCAR dataset were analyzed using principal component analysis (PCA). Then, 10,958 days (distribution patterns) were classified into groups by cluster analysis in the six-dimensional space with the axes of the first six component scores of the PCA. Winter SLP distribution patterns in the East Asian region were classified into 12 groups (patterns). Each pattern was named according to the feature clarified. These patterns were mainly characterized as a strong winter pattern (three groups: Siberian high type, Aleutian low type, mixed type), weak winter pattern (three groups), cyclone pattern, anticyclone/cyclone pattern (two groups), anticyclone pattern (two groups), and others. Our method classified the strong winter pattern into three groups from the meteorological point of view. Through the use of the additionally calculated six-hourly time series of the patterns, the temporal continuity of each group was investigated. The group to which specific groups tend to shift was also clarified quantitatively. In the interannual variation of the frequency of each group, no increasing or decreasing trend was found, especially in those of the strong winter patterns. Our method enables the objective classification of the SLP distribution patterns according to the quantitative value. This will be helpful in evaluating climate change quantitatively from the frequency and intensity of each pattern when our method is applied to future SLP distribution patterns in the globally warming world.

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Traditionally, ‘beggars’ are embedded in local society with diverse religious, cultural, or social meanings. However, today governments in many countries prohibit the act of ‘begging’. The government of Bangladesh is also trying to eliminate the problem of ‘beggars’, although this government policy does not reach rural areas. Some NGOs provide self-dependency programs for ‘beggars’. Little detailed researches has been conducted on ‘beggars’ and ‘begging’, and therefore, this study examined the actual conditions of ‘beggars’ in rural Bangladesh. The present structure system of ‘beggars’ is discussed critically in this paper based on the results found in a village and some markets in Tangail, 70 km north-west of Dhaka. The local people in this village usually give alms to ‘beggars’, although they have little private information about them. ‘Beggars’ tend to avoid ‘begging’ in their own villages to protect their position as members of society (samaj). ‘Beggars’ are mainly the elderly, people with disabilities, and women with no male support. In Bangladesh, the space is genderized by religious and social rules and therefore women tend to avoid going to markets. Most female ‘beggars’ go on foot from house to house in villages, but some go to the local markets remote from the highway to ‘beg’. ‘Beggars’ choose places to ‘beg’ not only based on their gender, but also on their disability types and the availability of helpers. ‘Beggars’ with disabilities tend to go to markets along the highway even at a considerable distance from their homes, since some are allowed to ride buses free of charge. In addition, in large periodic markets where poultry and livestock are available, Muslims give to ‘beggars’ as special alms (sadaka) for their wish fulfillment or problem solving. ‘Beggars’ coalesce into groups and share those alms. The periodic market management committees accept them without levying taxes on the use of market sites. Thus, local people support the practice of ‘begging’. ‘Beggars’ with disabilities are particularly regarded as deserving of help. Although the practice of ‘begging’ is embedded in local rural society in Bangladesh, government and NGOs consider this practice to be an economically and socially marginalized activity and are trying to eliminate it.

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The advertising industry in Japan reached a turning point after the 1990s. In concrete terms, advertising expenditure in Japan did not show much growth after the bursting of the bubble economy, the development of information technology diversified media, and mega-agencies compete in the advertising market. These changes led to restructuring of the Japanese advertising industry. This paper aims to show how environmental changes surrounding the advertising industry affected the organization and interfirm linkages of advertising-related companies (advertising agencies and advertising production companies) and discusses the agglomeration dynamics of the advertising industry in Tokyo. In 1980, advertising-related companies were concentrated in five central wards (Chiyoda, Chuo, Minato, Shinjuku, and Shibuya), especially in the Ginza and Tsukiji area in Chuo ward. Advertising agencies must be in close contact with advertisers, media companies, advertising production companies, etc. It was therefore advantageous for advertising-related companies to locate in the Ginza and Tsukiji area where many major advertisers and media companies had offices. In 2010, advertising-related companies continued to be located in those five central wards, but several changes occurred. First, the number of foreign advertising agencies in Tokyo increased. Second, in Shibuya, which is known as an agglomeration of Internet-related companies, a new agglomeration of Internet-based advertising companies appeared. Reorganization of major advertising agencies resulted in the formation of an agglomeration of corporate groups in the five central wards. Dentsu, Hakuhodo DY Holdings, and Asatsu-DK were traditionally dependent on commissions from the mass media (newspapers, radio, magazines, and television), although they expanded their business services. However, since the 2000s, due to changing advertiser needs, they have sought to internalize the production of advertising, which was generally outsourced to advertising production companies, established subsidiaries, and bought out companies specializing in specific domains. Because of the strength of organizational relations and business domains, most companies in a group are concentrated around the parent company. In terms of interfirm linkages in advertising production, some advertising production companies have broadened their business fields. However, not all have integrated advertising-related services. They flexibly form linkages with specialized firms to meet client needs. Although their organizations and interfirm linkages are changing, they make a point of face-to-face communication with clients and partners, and thus their interfirm linkages remain concentrated in central Tokyo, leading to continued agglomeration of the advertising industry. These findings suggest that the transaction cost remains an important factor in the formation and maintenance of agglomerations of advertising-related companies. On the other hand, environmental changes have led to a concentration of corporate groups and fusion of the advertising industry and Internet-based industry inside agglomerations, thereby transforming the agglomeration of the advertising industry in Tokyo.

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An examination of the areas indicated in the Chôsokabe Cadastral Books (1588) and Meiji (1868–1912) cadastres based on the land plots in cadastral maps resulted in the discovery that western Okô-shinmachi was actually located farther south than where it is generally considered to have been situated. A review of the river channel showed that the land guesstimated to be Okô-shinmachi partially overlaps the current river. The reason is that the Kokubu and Kasano River channels guesstimated in the cadastral survey in 1588 were different from what they are now.
Traditionally, historicogeography has often depended on archeological excavation to determine whether the reconstruction of old landscapes is accurate. Examination of roads, dykes, ditches, and other remains through excavation research and chronological speculation on the periods in which unearthed items existed usually lend validity to historical landscape reconstruction. This study, however, is based on the idea of reconstructing sophisticated old landscapes even without excavation results.
The comparison of the Chôsokabe Cadastral Books and Meiji cadastres examined in both this study and a previous one (Kataoka 2009) showed that the Chôsokabe Cadastral Books were highly accurate in land measurement. Examining the land segmentation and areas in each land plot may provide this study's concept of reconstructing historical landscapes with high probability.
The land segmentation on Meiji cadastral maps as historical materials on the reconstruction of historical landscapes was created in multiple periods. The methodology used in this paper can be considered a method to reconstruct old landscapes and one possible method to speculate on the last period of land segmentation on the basis of historical materials. The comparison of materials specifying the area of each land plot before the Meiji period and the area of each land plot on cadastral maps enables rough calculations of the last periods of those segments in accordance with the years in which the materials were compiled. This study shows that the land segmentation of Higashi-machi in Okô-shinmachi reflected landscapes in the late 16th century, and the land segmentation remained up until the Meiji period.

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It is widely known that industrialization and the development of tertiary industries are the major driving forces of urbanization. In contrast, the impact of PR China's governments at various administrative levels on urban change is significant. In the postreform era especially, the impact of local government has become far more direct than that of the central government in terms of urbanization. Hebi, a mining city in Henan province, central China, was studied to investigate the new type of urbanization directed by local government. As a mining city, Hebi has been threatened by environmental problems caused by mining resource consumption. Accordingly, a new city center was built to attract new enterprises. Through intensive interviews as well as fieldwork during 2007–2010, we examined the role the local government has played in urbanization, the mechanisms and processes of change, and the resultant impacts on the city. Of the major institutional tools, infrastructure construction, enterprise attraction, and relocation of the population have been successfully implemented by the local government. With the establishment of new enterprises, the local economy has diversified, although the coal mining industry is still a major component of Hebi's economy. Moreover, the city image and living conditions have improved. Nevertheless, the creation of the new city center has encountered two problems. First, since there is a limited number of new enterprises, the new city has not become an engine of growth for Hebi. Second, since financial resources are limited, living conditions have worsened in the old urban areas of Hebi. As this study showed, the local government constructed a new urban space through administrative methods, which powerfully shaped the direction of Hebi's development during the postreform era. The role of the local government is direct and forceful in new space production and place-making. This suggests that institutional forces have marked effects on urbanization in China.

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