In recent years, item response theory (IRT) has been used by many researchers who study organizational behavior. The objectives of this paper are to make overview of the principles of the theory and to discuss its applicability for measuring organizational behavior.
The emphasis is addressed on the promising feature of the theory rather than comparison of advantages and disadvantages with classical test theory. Practical procedures for selecting models, estimating parameters, and developing items are also discussed.

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A field experiment investigated the effects of training on Japanese managers' attitudes toward divergent thinking. An experimental group (n=60) of managers underwent practice- oriented experiential training in creative problem solving. Two control groups underwent placebo treatments. The first (n=15) was comprised of Japanese university faculty and graduate students who participated in an abstract discussion. The second (n=47) was comprised of Japanese assistant managers who experienced training in an unrelated subject. The three groups were measured before and after training on attitudes toward two aspects of divergent thinking: active divergence and premature convergence. The experimental group showed significant gains on both measures versus both placebo control groups. Compared to North American managers from similar studies, the Japanese managers appear to be at least equal on both attitudes in mean score and in gains made after training. This research indicates that applicability and receptivity of paradigms and methods of training in creativity and innovation may be at least as strong in Japanese business and industry as in North America. Also the Japanese translations of the two measures developed and used for the first time in this study appear to be good replicas of the English language versions. Some interesting differences between the two attitudes in gains after training and between the groups before training are identified as opportunities for future research. Potential mediators include Japanese cultural factors, profit versus non-profit organizational contexts, and different levels of responsibility.

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Under the rapid change of the socio-economic environment, the cooperative associations of the medium and small scale enterprises stand at a turning point of the business activities and organizations. The activation of the cooperative organization is the matter of urgency.
In 1988, we surveyed the current conditions of the business, organization, and management of the 3277 cooperative business associations in Kinki. The data from 1406 cooperatives were gathered, and analyses were made on the relationship among the organizational factors and the level of activation. Analytical results show that strategy formulation of the association, integrative organizational climate among the medium and amall scale enterprises, and loosely coupled linkage with other organizations are the necessary conditions to activate the cooperative organization.

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従業員約3,600名の業績優良製造販売業T社を対象とした調査資料をもとに, 佐野ら (1988) の業績普通ないし優良同種企業4社を対象とした資料の分析により得られた結果の普遍性の有無が検討された。結果は, 以下のようにまとめられる。
(1) T社の管理範囲にかかわる媒介変数23変数51項目への反応を, 職位ごとに因子分析し, バリマックス回転し得られた5因子の因子パターンを, プロクラステス回転し相互に比較した結果, 職位にかかわらず, ほぼ同一の5因子から構成されていることが明らかにされた。
(2) T社の職位別のバリマックス回転後の5因子解と, 製造販売業3社 (A, S, AI) 込みの職位別の同5因子解を, 職位ごとプロクラステス回転により比較したところ, どの職位でも, 両社はほぼ同一の5因子から構成されていることが明らかになった。
(3) T社の職位込みのバリマックス回転後の5因子解をもとに管理範囲にかかわる媒介変数の因子レベルでの職位間比較を行なったところ, 職位に特有と考えられる反応の違いが, 各因子ごとに明らかになった。また, それらと, 佐野ら (1988) のE社に対する同様な分析結果とを比較したところ, 両社に共通する第4因子までについては, 各々の因子上での職位間差異は, 大局的には両社で酷似していることが明らかにされた。
(4) T社の職位Bの管理者の資料をもとに, 管理者の管理範囲にかかわる媒介変数の5因子のそれぞれと集団の大きさ (直属部下数) および管理範囲にかかわる基準変数4項目との関係を, 重回帰分析により検討した結果, 各因子と基準変数との間に密接な関係があることが明らかにされた。さらに, それらと, 佐野ら (1988) のE社に対する同様な分析結果を比較したところ, T社の第2因子で, E社の第3因子にあたる「部下の仕事の内容・手順・方法への理解度と, 積極性・責任感」についてのみ同一であること以外は, 基準変数との関連の様相は, 両社で相当異なる部分が多いことが明らかにされた。
これらの結果は, 管理範囲にかかわる媒介変数の因子レベルでの内容及びその職位間差異に関する普遍性を示唆すると共に, 各因子の基準変数や直属部下数との関連の様相については, 共通点は少なく, 企業の中での各単位組織の置かれた状況や, 組織内の人的・物的資源の違いにより異なることを示唆している。

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Based on the hierarchical principal component analysis techinigue, a set of data involving evaluative ratings (5-point scale) on 10 most advanced scientific technologies were analysed, for the purpose of identifying basic as well as specific evaluative dimensions associated with these advanced technologies. A data set for the present analysis maintained a structure to conform the three-mode factor anaysis: subjects rated by using the same set of scales 10 different technologies (i. e., artificial intelligence, bio-technology, nuclear power generation, space technology, linear motor car, tube baby, 5th generation computer, super conductivity, organ transplant, and high-speed reactor). A series of conventional factor analyses (principal axes followed by Varimax rotation) and a present hierarchical component analysis as well produced basically the same image structure on advanced technologies. For basic common dimensions, three factors namely useful and development, dagerous and harmful, and personally beneficial were identified, while another three factors were derived to represent specific dimensions unique to each technology.

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Impact of CI (Corporate Identity) building activities upon employees' attitudes toward their organization was examined from an organizational communication point of view. First, a degree of employee exposure to the company's CI media and an attitude (favorable-unfavorable) toward CI activities were measured. Then, subjects were classified into three groups in terms of their felt favorableness to the CI. A series of analyses were conducted to see how these groups differ in terms of their attitudes to and perceptions on their organizations. As hypothesized, results of the analysis indicated that the CI-supportive group tended to show a higher exposure to the CI-related information, better corporate images, higher evaluation of corporate performance, and stronger support of company's communication efforts directed toward both customers and employees.

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Based on data derived from interviews with directors and plant managers working for Japanese transplants (6 firms) in the American Mid West area, an unique set of HRD strategies that the Japanese manufacturers in the U. S. follow were identified, covering such practices as recruitment and selection, employment security, training and placement, pay and promotion, participation, equal treatment and so forth. Three strategically important areas for the successful HRD were found:(1) transfer of work-related skills and values, (2) internal development of skilled employees and team leaders, and (3) creation of the third (hybrid) work culture unique to each transplant.
To facilitate a transfer of skills and values from Japan to the U. S. exchanges of key employees were undertaken: providing OJT to the U. S. workers in Japanese plants followed by the Japanese-American joint operation back in the U. S. new plant. This initially trained core group was found playing an innovator function to the late comers who were mostly young and unskilled.
Among skilled and senior employees, team leaders were carefully evaluated and selected over a long period of time. Team leaders (including sub-leaders) symbobized successful implementation of ideas concerning internal HRD, job security, and team work pronounced by the Japanese transplants. Finally, for the purpose of creating unique work culture of their own, Japanese transplants in common intensively engaged in facilitating horizontal as well as vertical commumication, egalitarian treatments, participation programs, and social and leisure activities. These integrative measures seemed key catalyst in developing organizational effectiveness through HRD efforts.

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