The main results may be summarized as follows :

 (1) Offensive fundamentals can be roughly classified into “body control" , “ball handling" and “shooting".

  1) Body control consists of “body balance" and “footwork".

  2) Ball handling consists of “ball handling"，“reception" “passing" and “dribbling".

  3) Shooting is organized from the following four steps of shots : “one handed set shot"，“jumping set shot"，“jump shot" and “lay-up shot".

 (2) Individual tactics can be divided into two parts: player with the ball and player without the ball.

  1) Individual tactics of player with the ball is triadically classified into the exeution of fundamentals, “one player maneuvers" and “faking" depending upon whether or not they are under direct pressure from a defender.

  2) Individual tactics of player without the ball is classified into “getting open" and “faking" depending upon whether or not they are under direct pressure from a defender.

    From the results described above, we may conclude that we have been able to give a guideline for the investigation of the careful selection and structurization of offensive techniques and tactics in basketball.

    Generally speaking, the designation “ball game" (Jap. kyugi) is used as a comprehensive term to describe those sports in which a ball plays a central role, usually as an object of dispute between opposing players or teams. In practice however, it is customary, indeed necessary, to draw distinctions between the different types of ball games - to consider them as independent - when involved in training activities or studies in a particular sport. Thus, a classification of the various sports gathered under the comprehensive term “ball game" is necessary when it comes to conducting research aimed at determining the similarities and differences between, or the uniqueness of, the tactics employed in the various types of ball games. Further, the development of programs of instruction or training for a specific ball game, or ball games generally, is, of necessity, dependent on various factors: an relationships to other games in term of strategic and tactical similarities, differences or uniqueness.

    This study uses the existing classifications for ball games as a basis for the formulation of a new system. The new classification has, at its root, an understanding of the function of the ball - the object of dispute - and the manner of dealing with it. As a consequence of this approach, it was possible to arrive at a clearer over-all classification of ball games.

    Research results indicated that, when the emphasis is on dealing with the ball, the following points should be used as standard criteria for the classification of ball games.

    1) Dealing with the ball as a team or as an individual.

    2) The size of the playing field.

    3) Ball games in which possession of the ball or right of priority to it is on the offensive side or on the defensive side.

    4) Ball games in which competition is for points gained within a set number of tries, attempts or times, games in which there is competition for points whithin a set time period, and games where there is competition to be the first to win a set number of points.

    5) Ball games in which opponents simultaneously occupy the area of a playing field and games in which this is not the case.

    6) Ball games with physical contact technique of physical contact and ball games whithout such physical contact technique of physical contact.

    A classification system using these crijeria makes it possible to identify the special tactics employed in the various games. From these, it is then possible to derive systematic generalizations.

    The purpose of this study was to investigate the offensive pattem after the serve reception of Italy men's volleyball team which won the 1995 World Cup. The first sideout plays during the game between Italy and Japan in the 1995 World Cup held in Hiroshima were filmed at 100 f.p.s. with two 16mm cinecameras and a VTR. The kinematic data of the spiking motions were computed by the Direct Linear Transformation Method.

    The combination offense plays of the first sideout plays were the three or four-hitter attack. Italy used almost the four-hitter attack (85%) whether the setter was on the back or front court rotation. Each set of the four-hitter attack was delivered by the jump-set. The offensive pattem which was often used as the four-hitter attack consisted of the B or C quick set, the low fast set to the leftside spiker, the lob set to the center spiker, and the back lob set to the rightside spiker. The center and / or rightside spiker was the back court spiker in some cases. The back court spike on the rightside area was performed by the ace-spiker of the team. The maximum spiking height of Italian ace-spiker was 3.50m. The approach velocity, the takeoff location, and the broadjumping length of the center back court spike called ‘pipe' were 4.50m/s, 3.90m, and 2.16m respectively. The pipe was not used in such a case that the back court spiker passed the jumping serve himself.

    The purpose of this study was to determine the characteristic of in-line skate turn by means of three dimensional analysis in 3 male college skiers. Subjects performed parallel turns during in-line skating on asphalt slope. One of the turns was videotaped by two cameras from two direction. Three dimensional coordinates of reference points on body, in-line skate and center of gravity of whole body (C.G.) was calculated using direct liner transformation method. The change of hip and knee joint angle, and the trajectory of C.G. during in-line skate turn were similar to those during ski turn characterized previously in literature. The change of ankle joint angle during in-line skating was larger than that during skiing. Trajectory of in-line skate during turn was not maintained in parallel. These data indicate that there are affinities of turn motion between in-line skate and ski, and suggest that in-line skate may be available for ski training.

    The purpose of this research is to examine the relationship between the pattems of ball possession and the results of offensive actions by female college students and female high school students respectively.

    Research on female college students and female high school students shows the influences caused by the differences in ball possession pattems on the ending pattems of offensive actions.

    A comparison of the ball possession pattems with the results of offensive movements has been done. As for college students, significant correlation between the ball possession pattems and the ending forms of offensive movements was acknowledged. In case of high school students, however, no particular correlation was acknowledged.

    For a more detailed analysis, winners and losers for both college and high school students were divided into two groups and a new comparison was conducted.

    The results show that for high school students being winners or losers wasn't in relation with ball possession pattems and the ending forms of offensive movements; for college students, we found a relationship between the ratio of the ending forms of offensive movements and the general defensive formations.

    So, it can be concluded that by dividing the groups in winner and loser, we were able to recognize the differences between high school and college students.

    The purpose of this study was to investigate the physical activities of referees during rugby games. Referees in 6 games (including 2 company games, 2 university games and 2 high school games) were filmed with 2 video tape recorder to estimate the distance and velocity using a DLT method. Accelerate phase and tum movement of referees were videotaped using another video tape recorder.

    The results were summarized as follows:

(1) The mean time of out-of-play per a play was almost 30 second.

(2) The mean time of in-play per a play in high school games was almost 20 second.

(3) The longest total distance was 6567.4m in university games.

(4) Jogging (under 4m/sec.) shared the highest percentage of almost 90%.

(5) There were 286 times of accelerate phase in university games.

(6) There were 379 times of tum movement in high school games.

    This study is a comparison of cognitive structures of rugby football positions in ]apan with that in France. First, it applies multidimensional scaling (INDSCAL: Individual Differences Scaling) to French cognitive structures of rugby football positions. Thirty-nine French rugby players are served as subjects. The result by INDSCAL shows three dimensions which were identified as follows: (1) a dimension of formation, (2) a dimension of scrum-lineout, (3) a dimension of get and keep the ball. The third dimension; “get and keep the ball" is a new dimension and will be important when arranging players in the best ‘hit' position.

    Second, in the cluster analysis, this study divides 15 rugby football positions into 4 clusters by weight of INDSCAL common stimulus space.

    In conclusion, “getting and keeping the opportunity of attack" is highly priority in considering the division of rugby football positions over everything in France. Coaching method in rugby in Japan needs this important factor, indeed, to construct more effective coaching method.

    Coaching influence to an athlete may vary according to the athlete's impression to the coach. Obviously, the better the athlete's impression to the coach, the more effective the coach's influence are. A hypothesis was raised that the athlete's gratification to the coach's pursuit in their job might be the key factor in creating the coach's impression. In order to proof that, a questionnaire survey was conducted to the collegiate student-athletes. The survey was included three different views of the subjects to remark their former high school coaches such as a role-model, as a leader, and as a coach overall. The regression analysis was employed to investigate the relationship between the athlete's gratification to the coach's pursuit in their job and the coach's impression. As a result, male athletes were inspired when the coach was able to lead them in the field, and when the coach gave them good advice. In the same way, female athletes were inspired when their coach took into consideration about the team's mood, and when the coach gave them good advice. Surprisingly, both male and female athletes were not impressed when the coach demonstrated good examples dealing with sport skills. In conclusion, the verbal expression seems to be a key factor in coaching to inspire their athlete.

    This study examined changes of swimming velocity (V), stroke rate (SR) and stroke length (SL) in 5m intervals over all stroke phases of a 200-m freestyle swimming race (1997 Japanese championships). These stroke variables, analyzed using images from five VHS video cameras, were compared between elite (finalists: FM; 8 male, FF; 8 female) and sub-elite (slowest of preliminary race : LM ; 8 male, LF; 5 female)groups. Velocity was highest at first 5-m section of the first stroke phase in all groups. Velocity then gradually decreased until the middle of the second stroke phase. From the middle of the second phase, the elite group V remained unchanged while the sub-elite V decreased until the end of the fourth stroke phase. Stroke length change pattems were similar in all groups, showing peaks at the middle of the second stroke phase, and decreasing gradually to end of the fourth stroke phase. Stroke rates were found to change similarly with V until the middle of the second stroke phase after which the elite SR gradually increased while the sub-elite SR remained unchanged until the end of the fourth stroke phase. These results suggest that the changes in V between elite and sub-elite groups was mainly caused by changes in SR, and that favorable performance in the 200-m freestyle can be elicited by increasing the SR from the middle of the second stroke phase.

    Basketball, which consists of 13 rules, was invented by Dr. J. Naismith in 1891. A shot, pass and dribble are basic skills. Using those skills, two teams playing with each other compete to gain more points than their opponents. It is traditionally said that basketball is a rigorous game. It is because players are required to have many kinds of physical abilities. For example, aerobic power when they are playing, and arises anaerobic power to make quick turns and dashes when the opportunity, and also power for jumping, these are all important abilities. Therefore basketball demands more rigorous and complicated training than athletics and swimming, because basketball players have to perform according to their team mates and/or opponent team players.

    The authors intend to measure the demands on the players in a game and in practice sessions, and then compare the two. Because the authors' hypotheses is that there is a difference in the demands placed on players between a game and practice sessions. In this study, Vo₂max of three college club players (a guard, a forward and a center player) is estimated at lab. work. And then their demands on their game and practice sessions with heart rate (HR) are measured. In the game, total moving distances and running velocities are also measured from a synchronized VTR.

    The following resulted;

1. Subjects Vo₂max were 3.2-3.41・min^-1 (47.9-54.1 ml･min-¹ ･kg-¹). It was shown they were normal but non-elite players of basketball.

2. Average HR in the game was 177.0±14.6 bpm.

3. In eighty percent of the game time, over 80 %HRmax was shown. It was a zone which needs an anaerobic energy production. This data confirmed that a basketball game is a rigorous game in general.

4. Average HR in the practice was 150.0±26.2bpm. This value was lower than HR of the game, with significance (p<0.05). This finding was important. It is because their practice session might include only lean effectiveness.

5. In the game, estimating total moving distance of the guard player was 6009 meter (m) with a two dimensional analysis (2 DA) and 6427 m with a three dimensional analysis (3 DA). AIso the center player moved 5328 m and 5809 m respectively.

6. The vertical moving distance from 3 DA, the guard player's total distance was 1608 m, and the center player's distance was 1638 m. It seemed that positional characteristics were shown

7. The average moving velocity of the guard player in the game, was 1.9 m･sec^-1±1.3 m･sec^-1. The fastest speed was 9.4 m･sec^-1 in a fast break. Also the average moving velocity of the center player, was 1.7 m･sec^-1 ±1.2 m.sec^-1. The fastest speed was 7.8 m･sec^-1 in a changing phase from an offense to a defense by the center player. Nevertheless for more than 90% of the game time, it appeared that both players moved at speed under 4 m･sec^-1.

8. Regarding HR, it was shown that the level of demand on players in the practice sessions was lower than the game in this study. This must be correct for effective basketball coaching.

    The purpose of this study was firstly to investigate the relationship between the physiological parameters and the characteristics of running technique in middle distance running. The second purpose was to develop a running pace-maker and to estimate the pace-maker.

    The subjects were trained male college runners (n=8).

    Vo2max measured by increment exercise test ranged from 51.6 to 66.5 ml/min/kg with a mean of 59.6 ml/min/kg (SE±1.95). Measurements were obtained from the following specially designed 1500m running tests.

    The test consisted of 5 x 1500m running trials over two days. On day 1, the subjects performed a 1500m running trial at their maximal effort and, the maximal mean velocity (Vmax) of each runner was calculated. On the next day, they were instructed to perform four 1500m runs at constant velocities equal to 80%, 85%, 90% and 95% of Vmax, respectively, with two hours rest interval in between. The constant velocities were controlled with the experimental apparatus. During each run, heart rate, split time of each 100m and the time to complete 20 strides were measured to determine the running velocity, the stride frequency and the stride length. Mixed arterial blood samples were taken at the end of each 1500m trial to evaluate blood lactate concentration.

    Increases in the running velocity from 85% to 95% were achieved by a combination of increasing the stride frequency and the stride length. During the trial at the maximal effort, the velocity and the stride frequency similarly changed in each 100m. Moreover, lactate threshold, determined from the relationship between the blood lactate concentration and the velocity, approximately corresponded to the running velocity, and the characteristics of running technique were dynamically changed.

    The pace-maker worked functionally.

    The purpose of this study was to investigate quantitatively changes of the muscle activity on the whole body during the instep kicking. Twenty-seven soccer players participated in a shooting task consisting of ten kicks. They were classified into two groups (high-skilled and low-skilled) according to the performance of the shooting task. The results indicated that the high-skilled group relaxed trapezius activity just before the impact stage and tensioned the muscles on the leg efficiently. Our findings suggest that a ratio of the EMG activities during a kicking is valid for the quantitative analysis of the muscle activity as well as the integrated EMG value.

    The purpose of this investigation was to analyze of race and stroke characteristics for the swimmer who had participated in 50-m freestyle event at the 1996 and 1997 All Japan swimming championship. The performance of 292 male and female swimmers in the event were analyzed to determine race velocity (RV), stroke phase velocity (SV), start phase velocity (VSta), finish phase velocity (VFT), stroke length (SL), and stroke rate (SR), and to compare within each year and between 1996 and 1997, to assess the relationships between these parameters.

    The results suggest the following;

1) In the comparison of each parameter during 1996 and 1997, it was necessary to improve the swimming velocity of the stroke phase for the performance improvement.

2) Successful swimmers were characterized by higher velocity of the start phase, finish phase, and stroke phase the comparison of each parameter by the difference of the performance level.

3) In the start phase, it was regarded that the player who had participated in 1997 term can have been done measures by a regulated change in the start.

4) There was no correlation about the between swimming velocity and SL and SR. However, SL and SR showed a high, negative correlation in this study.

5) It was also necessary to examine between swimming performance and anthropometric characteristic.

    The final game of women's volleyball in the 26th Olympiad played, by the Cuban team (CUB) versus the Chinese team (CHN), was analyzed from the first to and including the 4th set. Technical evaluation of various aspects of play revealed that the total point rate was 34.0% for CUB and 24.7% for CHN, a difference of 9.3%. The total side-out success rate Was 58.9% for CUB and 49.4% for CHN, a difference of 9.5%. Thus showing higher rate for CUB. In terms of the total fault point rate, CUB was 9.6% while CHN was 5.1%, a difference of 4.5%. The total fault side-out rate was 11.5% for CUB and 6.9% for CHN, a difference of 4.6%. Thus showing that CUB had higher results in both aspects.

    In terms of the technical evaluation of team rotation phases, the time where the CUB showed the highest total point rate was R6 (45.0%, 3-10-2-8-15-6) and the highest total side-out success rate was R1 (70.0%, 10-2-8-15-6-3). On the other hand, CHN's highest total point rate was marked at R6 (29.0%, 7-6-2-3-1-11), while CHN's highest total side-out success rate was marked at R5 (68.0%, 11-7-6-2-3-1).

    The purpose of this study was to investigate the blocking skill against combination offense in volleyball. The spikers and blockers who played in the game Italy versus Japan in the 1995 World Cup were filmed at 100 f. p. s. with two 16 mm cinecameras and a VTR. The cinematographic data from the blocking motions were computed by the Direct Linear Transformation Method.

    The results were summarized as follows:

1) When two or three blockers could jump to block against attackers, the percentage of successful spiking points was lower than with one or no person blocking.

2) The point of the fingers of subject H. O reached by blocking was as high as the point of fingers of subject G. A, except for the block against a playset attack.

3) As the fingers of the center blocker projected over the net just before the quick spiker attacked, according to the sequential data of the blocking, it is difficult for the quick spiker to attack placing the ball crosscourt or down the line after the spiker sees the blocker's hands.

4) When the center blocker must use the reading block against the quick spike, it is important to jump to block stretching up both arms.

    The purpose of this study was to investigate the spiking motion on the skill level using an observational evaluation method and the bio-mechanical analysis. Subjects of this investigation were 27 male and 82 female junior high school students who had attended volleyball class for 7 times. Nineteen key categories were selected for evaluating the spiking motion. Subjects were taped by VTR (shutter speed: 1/500 sec.) on the process of taking a spike skill test.

    The main results obtained were as follows:

1) Spiking motion of junior high school students was classified into 8 typical patterns.

2) Spiking motion on each subject was upgraded and gained its accuracy because of motor learning in their volleyball class.

3) Spiking pattern that was classified by observational evaluation method had related to the spiking skill accuracy.

4) Typical spiking patterns that were classified by observational evaluation method were analyzed bio-mechanically using stick picture and the locus of center of gravity. There were remarkable differences between unexperienced spiking patterns and experienced one. That is, the spiking motion form drawn by stick picture was more smooth and the alteration of center of gravity to vertical direction and horizontal direction was more remarkable on superior spiking patterns.

    Es ist klar, daß ein Kollektiv sich das Ziel setzt, die Aufgaben stellt und entsprechende Verant-wortungspersonen festlegt, also das System aufbaut, um das Ziel zu erreichen. Im Leistungssport kommt es darauf an, wie man mit der Nationalmannschaft an der Spitze intemational gut bestehen kann. Dafür sind sind solche Fragen wie die Technik, Taktik, Kondition u.s.w., und die Frage, wie und in welcher Altersstufe die genannten Faktoren entwickelt werden sollen, von großer Bedeutung.

    Der anliegende Forschungsbericht soll zum Aufbau eines Trainingssystems, welches der japanischen Mannschaft leistungsmäßig entwickeln kann. Insbesondere ist entscheidend, wie man an die Junioren (unter 20 Jahren) herangehen kann. Aus diesem Grunde wurde das Trainingssystem Japan und Deutschland in Bezug auf die Junioren vergleichend analysiert.

    Aus den Literaturarbeiten, Praxisanalyse und Gespächen haben sich folgende Schlußfolgerungen für japan ergeben :

  1) Es ist eine dringende Aufgabe, ein Ramen-Manual für eine systematische Trainingsgestaltung auszuarbeiten.

  2) Es wäre eine Zeit, die Leitlinien über das Training unter 18 Jahren unter Berücksichtigung ihres physischen Entwicklungsniveaus emeut zu überprüfen.

  3) Es kann eine Stagnation an der Entwicklung und Verbreitung entstehen, ohne daß man die umgebenden Bedingungen für den Sport verbessert.

    In der weiteren Arbeit werde ich auf die Trainerausbildung eingehen, welche mit der Sportlerentwicklung eng verbunden ist. Weiterhin sollen die Fragen wie Trainingsumfänge und eine Siegeshysterie auch zum Forschungsthema werden, da sie mit der Frage der Leitung und Führung zusammenhängen.

    Ski-Boots have undergone drastic changes and accomplished remarkable improvements since 1970, when the boot-makers began to study on the materials. In spite of these changes and improvements, the criterion for choosing ski-boot has remained almost the same. Probably, foot length has been the only criterion. Our study tried to search for other possible criteria corresponding to the changes and improvements in ski-boots. Findings are as follows:

  1. There is a significant variation of lower leg girth among the subjects according to their differences in sex, height, weight and past movement experiences, despite the fact that their foot lengths are the same;

  2. The depth of ski-boot   varies in the range of 2 to 4 centimeters among the subjects with the same foot length;

  3. When the subjects put on ski-boots, the dorsal-flexion of their ankles and the position of their knees vary to a large extent;

  4. When the subjects put on ski-boots, the pressure value (the degree of buckle fastening) is higher among the seniors (the subjects with more skiing days) than among the beginners (the subjects with fewer skiing days).

    These findings suggest that, in addition to the foot length, the actual measure of sole, the depth of ski-boot, the dorsal-flexion of ankle and the buckle fastening become obvious criteria for choosing ski-boots, and that researchers and boot-makers contribute to safer skiing through further discussion and knowledge on these criteria.

    The purpose of this study was to collect basic data of downhill sprint for sprint training prescription. The subjects for this study were 9 male sprinters of Kanagawa Institute of Technology. The mean values of downhill gradients of the 100m slopes selected were horizontal, 1.59%, 3.57%, 5.01%, and 6.50%. Velocity curve, kinematical variables, and the relationship between objective time and subjective time were investigated in the horizontal running and each downhill running.

    The results were summarized as follows:

  1.  The data suggest that the 1.59% gradient downhill is not suitable for sprint training using supramaximal velocity.

  2.  No significant difference in running velocity was found between horizontal running and 1.59% gradient downhill running. Statistically significant (P < 0.01) supramaximal velocity was found in 3.57% and steeper gradient downhill running. Therefore, it became clear that the critical point of downhill gradient exists between 1.59% and 3.57% where statistically significant supramaximal velocity begins to appear. Furthermore, it is proved that a sprinter can experience supramaximal velocity, which is, as it were, a higher level of ability than his running ability level, on 3.57% and steeper downhill gradient.

  3.  Stride length was greater, the greater the downhill gradient. There was not much change in stride frequency between horizontal running and any downhill running. Therefore, it is suggested that the supramaximal velocities in downhill running were caused by the increase in stride length rather than stride frequency.

  4.  Time of support decreased with increasing downhill gradient, but on the other hand, time of non-support in creased with increasing downhill gradient.

  5.  Of six subjects out of nine, both objective time and subjective time became shorter with increasing downhill gradient. It was estimated that these six subjects did perceive supramaximal velocity for downhill running as psychological sense of speed.

  6.  It is suggested that downhill running is useful for psychological speed training.

    The purpose of this study was to evaluate the relation between heart rate and triggering action, and to consider the effect of heart rate biofeedback training (BFT) on rifle shooting performance.

    Subjects were employed 24 collegiate rifle shooters. They were divided into 3 homogeneous groups depending on their rifle shooting skill: AT-BFT group, BFT group, and Control group. AT-BFT group tried to decrease their heart rate with auditory biofeedback information and with autogenic training (AT) as strategy, BFT group did with only auditory biofeedback information, and Control group did without auditory biofeedback information.

    This report was discussed from the viewpoint of a triggering time point on heart rate changes. Expert shooter triggered at the lowest point of his/her heart rate. Heart rate biofeedback training work on their performance effectively only in AT-BFT group.

    Basketball player require certain physical fitness in many aspects in order to perform various types of movements such as dashing and jumping. The motions of the footwork with rapid changes in speed and direction, which is observed in a game, is characterized by the combination of eccentric and concentric movements (Stretch-shortening cycle movement: SSCM). The SSCM has two types: low-tension-type and high-tension-type. It is necessary to take notice of SSCM type to study the force and power of the lower leg muscle. In this research, we chose the vertical jump as an evaluation movement of the low-level SSCM, and the drop jump as of the high-level one. Since this study was to clarify the characteristics of the force and power with female basketball players, we take some female gymnasts, throwers (track and field), and swimmers as the subjects for comparison. Results were summarized as follows ;

1. There was no clear distinction in the levels of the force and power of lower leg muscles at low-level SSCM

2. At high level SSCM, basketball players' force and power of lower leg muscle is larger than the ones of swimmers, and smaller than gymnasts and throwers. This might be caused by the effects of the force and power level which is needed in each speciality.

3. At high level SSCM, basketball player' force is good in the strength-type, and their power is good in the speed-type.

    It is the purpose of this study to analyze the take-off motion of Drop jump biomechanically applying a method of normalization and standardization. The subjects were 29 male athletes of track and field. Each subject was required to make the jump with arms' motion from 40cm-high-stand. All the trials were taped by a high speed camera. The biomechanic variables including jumping-height, contact time, drop jump index were computed to characterize their jumps. Their jumps analyzed and then a method of narmalization and standerdization was applied to them. The main results were as follows;

1.  A large standard deviation was obtained large about lower limb motion on the take-off phase in the subjects that performed the higher jump.

2.  The ankle showed the large standard deviation in the subjects with shortest contact time and highest drop jump index, and then the second was the hip, the third was the knee. The results suggested that the most important factor was the knee joint motion on the take-off phase.

3.  The ankle showed the largest standard deviation on the early half of take-off phase in the subjects with the shortest contact time. The results suggested that temporal and spatial anticipation from short before of contact to the early half of take-off phase were the important factors to shorten the contact time in drop jump.