Piston friction reduction is one of the effective schemes for improvement of engine fuel economy. The optimum coating pattern for the piston skirt was investigated in this study. The piston lubricating condition was analyzed, and it was shown that the piston was operated under the hydrodynamic lubricating condition except in the expansion stroke. The coating pattern was, therefore, used for reducing the sliding area. Fuel consumption and piston friction force were measured for the tested coating pattern. The vertical stripe on the anti-thrust side of the piston skirt lowered the piston friction losses and showed good fuel economy.

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A diesel particulate filter (DPF) system has been developed to reduce particulate matter, including soot, in diesel exhaust gas. The accumulation of particulate matter in a DPF can cause technical problems because of an associated increase in back pressure, which in turn can decrease fuel efficiency and engine output. Although the primary method of regenerating a DPF is to oxidize the PM by raising the temperature of the filter above 630 °C, the temperature of a DPF during the New European Driving Cycle (NEDC) representing urban driving is typically less than 300 °C. The use of an ozone-based system to oxidize particulate matter on the DPF is therefore helpful. Analysis of the temperature range over which ozone oxidation will proceed indicates that the NEDC provides the requisite temperature. With regard to commercial applications of this technology, two potential problems are apparent; ozone loss during transportation to the DPF must be decreased and the conversion efficiency of atmospheric oxygen to ozone must be improved.

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Crude oil derived from Jatropha is a promising alternative to fossil fuels in Mozambique. To investigate the feasibility of direct use of crude oil for diesel engines, engine tests as well as measurements of un-vaporized fuel sprays and ignition characteristics were performed by use of Jatropha oil blended diesel fuel. The results demonstrated that a single cylinder engine is successfully operated with Jatropha oil blended diesel fuel even if the volume fraction of Jatropha oil is increased up to 80%. The thermal efficiency was decreased and the PM emission was increased, though. It was also confirmed that no phorbol esters were detected in the exhaust particulates.

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Degradation of heat transfer performance of EGR-Cooler by soot deposition was evaluated. To evaluate exhaust gas flow effect, two types of EGR-Cooler, which had different shape of spiral tube, were compared using fouling test of JE05 mode. Cold-Start and Hot-Start fouling test were adapted to investigate the influence of warm-up condition on EGR-Cooler performance. In Hot-Start JE05 fouling test, EGR-Cooler performance was degraded but it could be recovered by a Cold-Start JE05 operation. Properties of deposits after fouling test under various engine conditions were characterized. Using the characterization results of deposits, degrading and recovering behavior of EGR-Cooler performance was discussed.

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Iron should be one of candidates as an alternative material for Palladium due to its high oxidation activity. According to investigation results with Iron based three-way catalysts, it was found that the Iron particles accelerate the deterioration of oxygen storage materials after severe thermal aging. Several chemical analysis results indicate the Iron location on the support materials should be key methodology to improve catalytic activity. Therefore to avoid contact with Iron particles and oxygen storage materials leads better purification performance of Iron loaded TWC as compared with current Pd loaded TWC.

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This study is to clarify the effect of the optimum compression and expansion ratio control on the thermal efficiency by variable valve timings with a single-cylinder heavy duty diesel engine equipped with external supercharging system. Test was done in various combinations of effective compression and expansion ratio. In conclusion, it is confirmed that improvement in the gross indicated thermal efficiency by increasing effective expansion ratio at fixed and relatively lower effective compression ratio than expansion ratio. Brake thermal efficiency was further improved with the cavity having higher geometrical compression ratio than the baseline having 18.0 of compression ratio.

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A reduction in heat losses is an important factor of improving thermal efficiency of internal combustion engines. This study developed a two-zone combustion model considering autoignition in the unburned gas zone, coupled with an instantaneous heat transfer model on the combustion chamber wall. These models made it possible to discuss the interaction of the heat losses and knock occurrence and to optimize the spark ignition timing. The specific purpose of the present study is to explore the fundamental characteristics of wall surface temperature swings and the effect of applying a low thermal conductivity and low specific heat material to the combustion chamber wall on thermal efficiency and then to indicate the possibility of improving thermal efficiency and its mechanisms.

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In an attempt to improve the thermal efficiency and fuel consumption in a direct injection spark ignition engine, it is proposed that high-pressure delayed injection can be a good candidate for a way to avoid knock. The more knock resistant combustion with late injection around top dead center can be realized by finer spray dispersion from higher injection pressure with a centrally mounted injector. The experimental investigation on the mixture preparation with the injection strategy and knock propensity suggest that it is preferable to delay injection timing as far up to the end of compression stroke to obtain the best possible thermal efficiency in an operating condition. Simultaneous analysis by computation with a simple knock model also supports the experimental results and suggests that the effects can be further exploited through accelerated fuel evaporation and mixture formation.

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In this study, we focused on “Pre-chamber Spark Plug”, which has a pre-chamber at the tip of the standard plug without fuel supply mechanisms, for small size of gas engine. Although there have been many studies of pre-chamber spark plug in large size of natural gas engines, there have been very few studies of small size . For improving thermal efficiency, it is necessary to improve combustion under the leaner condition. To use pre-chamber spark plug, the combustion fluctuation was improved and combustion duration was become shorter. To use low heat conductivity of pre-chamber material, lean limit was extend.

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Experimental ignition delays for 2-methylfuran (2MF) were measured using a rapid compression machine at an equivalence ratio of 1.0 with an oxygen concentration of 4.1% in nitrogen and argon, in the temperature range 970-1050 K and pressure range 2.80-2.95 MPa. The measured ignition delays were compared with the numerical predictions. The ignition delays were found to decrease with an increase in the temperature and the simulated ignition delays were in reasonable agreement with those obtained from experiments. In addition, the ignition delays for primary reference fuel (PRF) 90, PRF 90 / 2MF (PRF 90: 70 vol%, 2MF: 30 vol%), and PRF 90 / ethanol (PRF 90: 70 vol%, ethanol: 30 vol%) blend fuels were measured. The addition of 2MF and ethanol to PRF 90 decreased the ignition delays. The ignition delays for PRF 90 / 2MF blend fuel were longer than those for PRF 90 / ethanol blend fuel. A detailed kinetic model for PRF / 2MF blend fuel was constructed, which reasonably predicted the experimental results.

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Crankshaft offsetting to the thrust side causes a decrease in piston side force hence piston friction in the expansion stroke. However an increase in piston side force in the compression stroke was estimated by crankshaft offsetting for a diesel engine. Furthermore it was also estimated that crankshaft offsetting reduced efficiency of conversion from combustion pressure to engine torque. The effect of crankshaft offsetting on piston friction force and the conversion efficiency was investigated for a diesel engine. It was shown that piston friction force was improved but the conversion efficiency was significantly decreased by crankshaft offsetting to the thrust side.

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Intake gas temperature is important parameter for a fuel consumption improvement. However, there were few past investigation reports with the low emissions of the present emission standard. In this study, the effects of the intake gas temperature were investigated with based on experimental studies and it was investigated by thermal balance analysis and combustion analysis with the diesel engine at the controlled NOx condition. When intake gas temperature increased, the exhaust losses increased and the brake work decreased. Then, the thermal efficiency was decreased due to the decrease of a specific heat ratio. It was found that a specific heat ratio is an important parameter for the thermal efficiency improvement.

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Reduction of engine oil consumption is required for preventing poisoning an after treatment device, an abnormal combustion and so on. The effect of the third land volume of a piston on engine oil consumption was investigated. Gas pressure at the second and the third land lands were measured and calculated. Oil consumption was also measured. Findings showed that the third land volume affected oil consumption. An increase in the third land volume was effective for decreasing gas pressure at the third land and improving oil consumption.

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The formation of soot has become one of the most important issue in the area of internal combustion system. However it is difficult to analyze soot formation by using real engines because of low reproducibility of fuel injection. Therefore in our research, we developed single droplet injection system which has high reproducibility and applied for droplet array injection. By using this system, observation of luminous flame and droplets evaporation near Butane diffusive flame has been carried out.

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This paper describes that it applies to off-road engine by tandem DOCs system with metal LS-design (Longitudinal Structure design) substrates which have special shovel on corrugated foil regularly. At first, it confirmed the advantages of DOC with LS-design substrate (LS-DOC) for the tandem DOCs system. Then, it also confirmed that new PM reduction process hypothesized by turbulent flow at a gap of between first LS-DOC and second LS-DOC. As a result, for difficulties of conventional Diesel Particulate Filter system applied to off-road engine applications, it confirmed that the tandem LS-DOCs system has the advantages compared to conventional other types of substrates in tandem DOCs systems.

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A 2-Stage boosting heavy-duty diesel engine made up of a relatively small turbocharger and a conventional turbocharger was simulated and experimented in order to improve the fuel consumption, especially in a low engine speed region where most of heavy-duty diesel engines are frequently operated. In the low engine speed and high load region, this system obtained high boost pressure. As the result, fuel consumption improvement and BMEP increase were simultaneously achieved in the low engine speed region. In other regions, the control of boost pressure and PMEP is very important so as to maintain good fuel consumption and low exhaust emissions.

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In order to obtain an accurate measurement of low-level aldehydes contained in diesel exhaust, aldehydes were directly collected from engine-out emission using a DNPH cartridge. Since stability of aldehyde-DNPH was changed by storage condition, suitable storage condition of the collected sample was examined. Furthermore, aldehydes concentrations during engine warm-up under low-temperature condition were obtained by analyzing the collected sample using a HPLC, and odor intensity of same exhaust was evaluated by sensory assessment. Temporal change of total aldehydes concentration was similar to that of the odor intensity.

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This paper describes a new packaging technology for mounted compact one-motor, two-clutch parallel hybrid system for front-wheel-drive vehicles. This floating mount technology for the transmission substantially reduces noise by controlling the resonance of electromagnetic force in the motor. The new developed seal structure enables the built-in dry multiple-disc clutches into the motor.

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In order to measure the lock-up clutch contact pressure, multi-layer thin-film sensor was developed and measured the dynamic pressure distribution between facing part of lock-up clutch and the surface of torque convertor cover according to the differential pressure. As a result of comparing the measured value of a pressure sheet and a thin-film pressure sensor with a conventional sensing part, newly developed sensor formed on the cover surface was able to measure the pressure distribution correctly without measurement error by the cover deformation. Therefore dynamic continual contact pressure change from facing outside to inner side became measurable.

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The short-range frequent-charging type electric micro-buses,“Waseda Electric Bus (WEB)” have been developed in our past research. “WEB for Suntory” suited to low speed driving and regenerating performance, is the medium size bus developed for expanding the riding capacity compared with our bus developed past. This bus has been running as a transfer tool for visitors in the factory at the mountain side. This paper describes the evaluations of environmental sustainability and vehicle performance of the developed bus.

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The mixed LiMn₂O₄-LiNi_1-x-yCo_xMn_yO₂ composite cathode in lithium ion battery during discharge process was studied with time resolve XRD and XAFS measurements in order to clarify the reaction and degradation mechanism of LiMn₂O₄ and LiNi_1-x-yCo_xMn_yO₂. The combination of the XRD and XAFS measurements successfully allowed us to understand each reaction for LiMn₂O₄ and LiNi_1-x-yCo_xMn_yO₂ in mixed composite cathode. Furthermore, the output of the cell with mixed composite cathode was faded by storage under high temperature condition and it was clarified that the factor of output fading was due to the decrease of reaction ratio for LiMn₂O₄ by reaction distribution.

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Control methods improving fuel economy of hybrid trucks were investigated. Performances of hybrid trucks in fuel economy which are shown in catalog specifications are relatively better than that of normal diesel trucks that have no hybrid systems. Nevertheless, hybrid trucks users report that advantages of fuel economy by hybrid trucks at the real traffic conditions are little. In this study, the cause of low improvement in fuel economy by hybrid trucks was investigated. Firstly, a simulation model of a hybrid truck was constructed and the model was validated with results measured by an actual hybrid truck with chassis dynamo meter. Secondly, control methods of the model were investigated to operate an engine in high efficiency conditions.

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This paper clarifies the effect of direct yaw moment control on power consumption in steady state cornering. To accomplish this, cornering drag, mechanical loss, and electric loss were formulated from the standpoint of direct yaw moment. Then, the characteristics of cornering drag and power consumption were validated on an actual test vehicle. This paper also discusses the relationship between mechanical power of drive torque and power loss on contact patch of tire based on the formulated cornering drag and power consumption. Typical direct yaw moment controls are also compared in terms of power consumption.

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Drivers’ steering model to follow the target course is described. The target yaw rate is calculated based on the relative position of the preview point and by generating this yaw rate, the vehicle can follow the target course as a result. In previous studies, the number of the preview point was one. Therefore, the damping ratio of the tracking system was fixed to critical value. We have solved this problem by employing two preview points and the curve negotiation with no steady state error can be achieved. At the same time, the dynamics of the system can be designed arbitrarily.

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This paper shows a stress evaluation method considering the variation of spot-weld location in automotive body. In order to represent stress perturbations caused by scattering of spot-weld locations, stochastic finite element method (SFEM) is adopted. First-order perturbation solution is used in SFEM to obtain not only deterministic responses but also these perturbations, in which the stiffness matrix including stochastic variables is considered. With this stochastic approach, stress distribution affected by location variables of each spot-weld could be easily obtained using the general-purpose FE solver.

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The early phase of designing requires us trials and errors to determine the appropriate design shapes for the multi-objective design within the wide design space. To win efficiency and an ideal design, Preference Set-based Design method was applied for the early p hase of chassis frame design. The PSD method uses the orthogonal table for the appropriate solutions to achieve the multi-objective targets. We proposed the specific assignment of the factors on L27 orthogonal table to get the accurate interaction under the specific condition in topological structure design. This report presents applicability of our proposal for the multi-objective satisfactory design solution by applying the PSD method.

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For durability evaluation in vehicle development, we have developed technology to predict the vehicle body input load using multi-body simulation, and we applied to the fatigue life strength analysis of the body spot-welding with its input. In addition, we have developed an analytical technique to identify the input path having a high contribution for spot-welding's fatigue life strength, using a method of converting the 6 component force and moment of the nugget into the nominal structural stress. By applying these technologies, the contribution of the input path for spot-welding fatigue life under road load conditions becomes clear.

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To investigate load transfer in vehicle bodies, an index Ustar (U^*) is widely used. For multiple load path structures, it is desirable that the average and the variance in the frequency distribution of U^* be small. We introduce a new statistical concept called the U^*-variance of a U^* histogram that can be derived from the U^* transform with the U^* kernel composed of a multiplex power series. The values of the U^*-variance and body stiffness have a close relation, and from a linearized relation we can find the statistical ideal stiffness of the target body.

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This paper presents a suspension dynamic model for the Colloidal Cylinder, which is worked by surface tension force appeared from nano-pore of colloidal solution made by hydrophobic silica gel and water. The simulation models are made as the parallel installation model and the serial installation model, and the dynamic vibration transmission character of the spring constant and the hysteretic damping are calculated. And, the evaluation results of Colloidal Cylinder by the Absorber Testing Machine are researched with the simulation calculation results. Those results are compared and the compound vibration model of the spring element and the damping element are specified as the parallel geometry of the suspension dynamic model. This thesis is reported about those analytical results.

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In this study, Response Modification Analysis (RMA) was proposed to obtain which reference point should be measured intensively and how degree the signal should be modified to reach target response signal considering various driving conditions. In the method, modified transfer functions are calculated using measured reference signals and target response signals at various driving conditions. To verify the effectiveness of the method, RMA was applied to vehicle interior sound at slow acceleration, idling and cruise conditions. As a result, optimized target level of each reference points could be obtained to reach the target interior sound levels at every driving condition.

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Humans can maneuver mechanical systems by regulating their limbs posture naturally while acquiring kinematical and dynamic characteristics of the systems through sensory organs. If such human sensory and motor characteristics changing in the task can be quantitatively described, it would be useful to design and/or develop a novel human-machine system so that humans can manipulate a machine more instinctively and comfortably. This paper investigates the interaction between human sensory and motor properties at the foot during the operation of an automobile pedal, as an example of human-machine systems, and demonstrates the close relationship between the perceptual properties of force resistance at the foot and the loads for foot joints much depending on the pedal layout. Finally, based on biomechanical and psychophysical analyses, a design method of pedal resistance properties is discussed.

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This study clarifies injury prediction model and influential factors in SUV or truck side impact crashes using Japanese accident data. In results, it is important for injury risks to evaluate deformation of door for chest injuries in case of SUV or truck side impact crashes. The previous injury prediction model has outlier cases of these crashes because of difference of door’s deformation. The injury prediction model in this study including delta-V and damage grade can estimate the injury risks in SUV or truck side impact crashes just using these types of accident data. This model shows that the injury risks in SUV or truck side impact crashes are higher than those in regular vehicles side impact crashes; however, the predictive accuracy cannot be improved sufficiently.

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This paper proposes a collision warning system based on crosswalk detection and pedestrian detection by using a monocular camera to prevent crashes with pedestrians. First, the paper describes a crosswalk detection algorithm which includes the edge extraction process and the cross ratio feature calculation. Next, based on the position of the detected crosswalk, the paper proposes two pedestrian detection algorithms, one is based on the object motion and the other one based on the crosswalk brightness pattern. The performance of each algorithm is evaluated from the viewpoint of computation time and recognition rate. Finally, A visual and auditory warning system based on detection result is presented and its feasibility is examined by test drives by the experimental vehicle.

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Recently various driving support systems have been developed to improve safety and reduce driver’s stress. It is necessary to design systems based on information that human driver perceives and gives better feeling of confidence. In order to clarify the information, we focused on optical sensation. Through the in-vehicle research, we find that expert drivers use smooth pursuit eye movement when they track the line precisely. As a result, we propose optical flow modeling that reflects vehicle movement and eye movement. The model indicates that expert drivers can perceive the orbit that vehicle will pass in the future.

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The voice-input interfaces of digital assistant devices are expected to reduce influences on the driving behaviors than visual-manual interfaces, though impacts of voice-input tasks are not sufficiently clear. This study examined the influences of the digital devices use during driving on the vehicle position variability through comparing the vehicle lateral displacement and headway distance. As the results of a driving experiment on a proving ground, following properties were clarified; (1) variability of vehicle position increased as a function of manual steps and voice inputs of digital device tasks, (2) small size of visual display deteriorated the visual behavior and subjective ratings, (3) digital device tasks impaired the driving behaviors if the tasks required longer total glance time exceeding 8 seconds. It was also revealed the voice-input task increased the variability of headway distance, in contrast to the visual-manual tasks harmed variability of both lateral displacement and headway distance. This result suggests the voice-inputs operation can reduce drivers' processing resources and it deteriorates coping behaviors to the relatively less conspicuous on-road events.

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An experiment was carried out in a driving simulator in order to evaluate forward vehicle collision mitigation systems. In this experiment, first we examined how driver respond to a forward vehicle collision warning system in a condition adding warning braking to visual warning and auditory warning. Our experiment revealed that in a condition adding warning braking, driver's response became appropriate and also brake reaction time became faster. We calculated the amount of decreases in collision speeds in each conditions and finally we tried to evaluate the effectiveness of the warning braking by reduction rate of fatal/severe accidents.

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Skills for tool use, including driving, are supported by two visuomotor abilities; the ability to model the relationship between an action and its consequences before execution (internal modeling ability), and the ability to plan a trajectory linking a specific point of an effector to that of a target (effector navigation ability). Ninety-nine young and ninety-eight older adults participated in two visuomotor tracking tasks for measuring these abilities. Based on task performance, participants were divided into two x two cells to assess types of clumsiness: Efficient internal model and deficient internal model crossed orthogonally with good and poor effector navigation. Functional differences between these four types of clumsiness are discussed.

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This study clarified that there was a correspondence between the basic driving skills and the cognitive characteristics related to clumsiness. Before experiments, by their performance on visuomotor tracking tasks, drivers were classified into three groups; skillfulness, effector navigation clumsiness and internal model disacquirement clumsiness. In experiments, we measured their driving performance on speed keeping, lateral positioning and stopping maneuvers. Results showed that, two clumsiness groups had difference skills especially in speed reducing control. Finally we discussed relationships between perceptual information processing and internal model using to drive.

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Our first report proposed four non-dimensional evaluation indices to provide quantitative assessment of safe driving. A quasi-real-time safe driving evaluation system (SDES) based on those indices were proposed in the second report. The present manuscript, as the third report, improved the SDES to encourage active understanding of the system and drivers’ motivation to utilize it. Driving simulator experiments were performed to examine the effectiveness of the improved SDES. Moreover, relationship between drivers’ attitude toward safe driving and motivation were discussed.

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Observing the driver's behavior by reproducing traffic accidents and conflict situations are effective in investigating the causes of accidents. In previous studies, driving simulators were often used in reproducing accident and conflict scenes, but such systems had difficulties in reproducing realistic situations. Therefore, a new instrumented vehicle, named JARI-ARV (Japan Automobile Research Institute - Augmented Reality Vehicle), was developed to reproduce realistic traffic accident and conflict scenarios without putting the driver at risk of an actual collision. JARI-ARV was equipped with three Liquid - Crystal - Displays (LCD) and three video cameras in front of the driver. When we want to reproduce a critical scene, computer graphics (CG) are superimposed on top of the real frontal image captured by the video cameras. These CGs are adopted from Augmented Reality (AR), and gives the impression as though they are on a test field. In this paper, we confirmed the acceptability and controllability in some driving situation, by comparing JARI-ARV with a standard vehicle. As a result, driver's behaviour in right turns and reaction to pedestrians were almost the same between JARI-ARV and the standard vehicle. However drivers found it difficult to stop at a stopline while driving JARI-ARV. In addition, the driver's reaction time for a pedestrian appearing behind a wall was almost the same between JARI-ARV and the standard vehicle.

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The head-on collision is the most frequent accident. Elderly drivers show the tendency to occur head-on collision, therefore, to clarify the principal accident causation of this collision is strongly required in our country which is an aging society. In the present study the driving data was classified into several patterns from each point of entering behavior, passing behavior and safety confirmation behavior. Then the differences between expert and elderly drivers were discussed, furthermore risk factors of elderly drivers were clarified by analyzing the patterns.

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The purpose of this study was extraction of physiological indexes reflecting fatigue induced by long time seating. Consequently, the following findings were obtained. 1) The association with the subjective fatigue (SF) of the whole body was suggested higher in the order of SF of lower thigh, lumbar, hip, thigh. 2) Bioelectrical impedance (BI) showed different variation in lumbar, thigh or lower thigh. 3) Estimation accuracy of SF of the whole body by physiological indexes was improved than before by using BI and heart rate variability (HRV) in the explanatory variables.

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Influence of a headwind (wind speed, U) on fuel consumption, f_c (L/km), for highway vehicles has been made clear by us with use of increase of fuel consumption, β_ｆ(U). However vehicle cruising speed, v, was limited and other v remain elusive. So the aerodynamic influence coefficient, K_A (v), is first studied and then headwind influence, β_ｆ(v), can be obtained with α_Ａ(u) which is increase of air resistance in vehicles due to headwinds. As a result β_ｆ(v) might be found practically almost constant over v increase in spite of reduction of α_Ａ(u).

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Modified real world model for estimating evaporative emissions from gasoline vehicles in Japan has been developed. Daily maximum and minimum temperatures at each prefecture were used to estimate the emissions. We have assumed evaporative emissions consist of permeations from fuel tank and piping and breakthrough emissions from canister. Estimated total amount of evaporative emissions was 31337 ton per year and it is 20 % lower than the past estimation. However, it is still higher emitter, emitting almost 5.5 percent of total amount from stationary sources in Japan. Estimated emissions from motorcycles with this model were almost 3000 ton and it will be reduced to 1000 ton by introducing 1 day Diurnal Breathing Loss (DBL) test for type approval tests.

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In order to adapt to the future stringent diesel vehicle emission regulation, it is common to use diesel particulate filter (DPF). The DPF is caned in the case with not only the support mat on the side, but also wire mesh ring on each end sides. Although it became possible to hold DPF according to this structure, part mark has increased and a manufacturing process has complicated. These issues becomes a cause of rising parts cost. We have been trying to develop active new shaped converter from the viewpoint of decreasing the part mark, and it has turned out to be effective canning method which is engaged the shapes of the DPF and cases without using wire mesh rings. In this paper, we report the basis of the shape of BULGE converter and the analysis of degradation behavior of the mat.

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We have developed an electrodeposition coating (e-coating) which have high throwing power and can optimize film thickness distribution on body-in-white in order to reduce coating usage. The new e-coating material can control the film thickness on outer panels, while keeping the equal film thickness on inner panels as the conventional e-coating material by plasticizer optimization into main resin backbone. The new e-coating can reduce approximately 11 % of the usage from the conventional one.

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This study proposes a vehicle following system using semi-mechanical coupling. The coupling couples between two vehicles mechanically in order to get a wired connection and sense a geometric relationship of the vehicles. The following system gets vehicle information and geometric relationship from the leading vehicle using the coupling, and get control over the following vehicle. This paper shows a detail of the following system and an evaluation experiment using electric light vehicles.

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