Plants of Podostemaceae inhabit only rock surfaces submerged in swift currents. Recent research showed the great diversity with many new taxa and gave molecular and phenetic evidence of their evolutionary history. Drastic ecological change may have preceded the diversification in the relatively little-varied environments. Each subfamily originated in either Asia or America and two subfamilies extended to the other continent, resulting in double-layer biogeography. The biogeography in Japan and elsewhere is affected by volcanic activities. There are great genetic differences between geographic populations, which can produce paraphyletic species. A species was cultured, with an implication that in nature currents sweep away harmful microorganisms and supply nutrition. The mutation rate of the family, which was found to be much higher than that of allied families, is probably caused primarily by exposure to intense ultraviolet irradiation. Genetically, the typical-meristemless stem is integrated with the Podostemoideae ‘leaf’ and ‘bract’. The evolution of rootedness/ rootlessness, organographic composition, and so on is saltational. The evolutionary change of foliose to ribbon-like roots, whose difference little affects adhesion to rocks, may be neutral.

In light of morphological and phylogenetic data, we describe a new variety, Spiranthes hachijoensis (Orchidaceae) var. kumamotoensis Suetsugu, from Kumamoto Prefecture, Kyushu, Japan. This variety can be distinguished from S. hachijoensis var. hachijoensis by morphological traits associated with allogamy, including a suborbicular and non-trilobed stigma, a well-developed rostellum that separates the stigma from the pollinaria, and pollinia with a viscidium. Our phylogenetic analyses indicate that while this variety is most closely related to S. hachijoensis var. hachijoensis, it shows moderate genetic differentiation from the latter.

A new species, Camptandra kampucheaensis Nob.Tanaka & Funak. (Zingiberaceae), from Bokor National Park, southern Cambodia, is described and illustrated. Molecular phylogenetic analysis using the nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region was carried out to determine the phylogenetic position of the new species among allied taxa. The new species is monophyletic with other three species of Camptandra and branched off at the basal position in the clade. Camptandra kampucheaensis is similar to C. ovata Ridl. in their small size and solitary stem with ovate leaves, but well distinguished by the broader leaves with more significantly cordate base, pinkish corolla lobes, and slightly pinkish labellum with yellow patch in basal center. Detailed description, line drawings, and color plates of habitat and habit are provided. A key to all species of Camptandra is also provided.

Lectotypes are designated for six taxa among the 90 new ferns and lycophyte taxa described by Tomitaro Makino, considered to be particularly high priority for nomenclatural stability. Prior to lectotypification, a thorough database and on-site investigation of specimens was conducted at the three herbaria (MAK, TI and TNS) that house important specimens collected by Makino, and the found specimens were carefully compared with their respective protologues to determine their status. We also explored the type specimens of Cyrtomium fortunei var. clivicola but were unable to find any specimen with pinnae sizes matching the protologue.

Japanese Macrothamnium plants, known to date only from Yakushima Island, Kagoshima Prefecture, have long been considered as M. macrocarpum. The present study revealed that they are M. submacrocarpum based on morphological re-examination of the leaf shapes of secondary aerial shoots and molecular phylogenetic analysis using rps4 and trnL-F sequences. Japanese plants of M. submacrocarpum are characterized by their habitat preference for rheophytic zones along streams and differ from the typical plants of M. submacrocarpum in other distribution areas growing on forest floors.

A new species of Gomphonemopsis, G. costata, was discovered from the surface of some Japanese seaweeds and seagrasses. Its morphology was examined by light and scanning electron microscopy; the details are described herein. This new species is morphologically similar to G. novozelandicum, G. pseudexigua and G. sieminskae in having a rectangular to bow-tie-shaped (pandurate) central area and a non-perforated valvocopula, but differs from these known taxa in its rough striae, thickened interstriae, short trapezoidal to circular areolae, many bands comprising the cingulum. The results of our molecular phylogeny indicated the monophyly of G. costata, G. cf. exigua and G. novozelandicum with high interspecific rbcL differences. These Gomphonemopsis species were sister to Phaeodactylum tricornutum and not found to be related to the clades containing taxa of the family Rhoicospheniaceae and the order Cymbellales to which Gomphonemopsis currently included, and any other orders of the raphid diatoms.

Ramalina cinereovirens Kashiw., K.H.Moon & J.E.Han and R. intestiniformis Kashiw. & K.H.Moon are reported for the first time from the Oki Islands, Shimane Pref., Japan. Ramalina cinereovirens represents the first record of the species in Japan, while R. intestiniformis marks the second known locality for this species in Japan.

Stellaria chinensis Regel (Caryophyllaceae), collected from Kaski District in Central Nepal, is reported as a new record for the flora of Nepal. A brief discussion of its distribution, ecology, and diagnostic characteristics is provided.

Tropidia angulosa (Orchidaceae), collected from the Sarlahi District in Central Nepal, is reported as a new record for the flora of Nepal. A brief discussion of its distribution, ecology, and diagnostic characteristics is provided.

Musa sikkimensis (Musaceae), collected from Ilam District in East Nepal, is reported as a new record for the flora of Nepal. A brief discussion of its distribution, ecology, and diagnostic characteristics is provided.