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Article type: Cover
2011 Volume 54 Issue 3 Pages
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Article type: Appendix
2011 Volume 54 Issue 3 Pages
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Article type: Appendix
2011 Volume 54 Issue 3 Pages
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Article type: Appendix
2011 Volume 54 Issue 3 Pages
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Ravi Naidu, Nanthi Bolan, Takashi Kosaki
Article type: Article
2011 Volume 54 Issue 3 Pages
i-ii
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Article type: Index
2011 Volume 54 Issue 3 Pages
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Cynthia A. GRANT
Article type: Article
2011 Volume 54 Issue 3 Pages
143-155
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Phosphorus fertilizers contain cadmium (Cd) as a contaminant at levels varying from trace amounts to as much as 300mg Cd kg^<-1> of dry product, and therefore represent a major source of Cd input into agricultural systems. Cd will accumulate in soils if the amount of Cd introduced through fertilizer application exceeds that removed by crop harvest or other loss pathways, such as erosion, bioturbation, and leaching. Phosphate fertilizers may also influence Cd phytoavailability through fertilizer-induced changes in soil pH, osmotic strength of the soil solution, zinc availability, soil organic matter, rhizosphere chemistry, soil microbial activity, and plant growth. As both total Cd input into soil and fertilizer-induced changes in soil properties are a function of the rate of fertilizer application, management practices that improve fertilizer use efficiency should be adopted to minimize fertilizer inputs while maintaining high crop yield potential.
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Jeffrey LEWIS, Ulf SKYLLBERG, Lars HAGGLUND, Jan SJOSTROM
Article type: Article
2011 Volume 54 Issue 3 Pages
156-161
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High concentrations of lead have been found on shooting ranges around the world. Understanding the environmental behaviour of this source of lead assists in determining the risks associated with shooting ranges. This study used a controlled, laboratory based approach to study the speciation and complexation of lead that is deposited on shooting ranges in the form of bullets. Given that many shooting ranges are located outdoors, weather plays a significant role in determining the environmental conditions that the bullets are exposed to. Aside from direct ingestion of lead-contaminated soil by children, precipitation and subsequent infiltration is presumably the most important exposure pathway for humans by carrying mobile forms of lead from the shooting range down to the groundwater. Contaminated soils were therefore analyzed using extended x-ray absorption fine structure (EXAFS) spectroscopy both before and after exposure of a shooting range soil to a simulated springtime snowmelt-the single largest infiltration event at northern latitudes. The best linear combination fit to EXAFS spectra of soil, both before and after infiltration, was a combination of 81% lead oxide (PbO) and 19% lead sorbed to soil organic matter. Two lead minerals that had been reported in previous studies of range soils, hydrocerrusite and cerrusite, were not detected in this study.
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Jin Hee PARK, Nanthi BOLAN, Mallavarapu MEGHARAJ, Ravi NAIDU, Jae Woo ...
Article type: Article
2011 Volume 54 Issue 3 Pages
162-174
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A large number of sites throughout the world are contaminated by heavy metals, which represents a significant threat to both the environment and human health. Lead (Pb) contamination in particular can cause toxic effects to plants, animals, and humans. Lead reacts in soil through sorption, complexation, and precipitation processes, which lead to its immobilization in soil. This review examines the role of bacteria in the immobilization of Pb and includes a case study examining phosphate-solubilizing bacteria-assisted Pb immobilization using insoluble phosphate compounds. Soil bacteria are capable of directly and indirectly contributing to Pb immobilization by a number of mechanisms, including biosorption and accumulation of metals by bacterial cells, complexation by extracellular polymers and protein substances, and precipitation of Pb by phosphate, sulfide, hydroxide, or carbonate. In addition, phosphate-solubilizing bacteria ameliorate Pb toxicity by dissolution of insoluble rock phosphate and subsequent immobilization of Pb.
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Santiago MAHIMAIRAJA, Santhamani SHENBAGAVALLI, Ravi NAIDU
Article type: Article
2011 Volume 54 Issue 3 Pages
175-181
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Long-term disposal of tannery wastes has resulted in extensive contamination of agricultural land and water sources in many parts of India. Chromium (Cr), a toxic heavy metal, is a major contaminant in tannery wastes, and its accumulation in soil and water is an environmental issue of increasing public concern in India, particularly in Tamil Nadu. Remediation of Cr-contaminated soils is a challenging task that may not only help in sustaining agriculture, but may also minimize adverse environmental impacts. Here, we examined the potential of phyto- and bioremediation techniques for treating Cr-contaminated soils in both laboratory and field experiments. Non-edible flower crops were found to be suitable for remediation as they grew well under Cr-rich effluent irrigation. Amongst the plants examined, Jasminum species showed a high degree of tolerance towards soil Cr. Although the growth of mustard crop seedlings was inhibited, sunflower crop established well and exhibited high tolerance towards soil Cr; however, the accumulation of Cr in seeds is likely to diminish the potential of sunflower for phytoremediation. The application of biological wastes, namely coir pith and poultry manure, to Cr-contaminated soil was found to be effective for reducing the bioavailable fractions of Cr, mainly through the formation of organic complexes, demonstrating their potential in the bioremediation of Cr-contaminated soil.
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Sifau Adenike ADEJUMO, Adeniyi Olumuyiwa TOGUN, James Alabi ADEDIRAN, ...
Article type: Article
2011 Volume 54 Issue 3 Pages
182-193
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Addition of compost to heavy metal-contaminated soil has been employed to remediate contamination. Such rectification, however, depends on the type of compost and the contaminant involved. The efficacy of Mexican sunflower (MSC) and Cassava peel (CPC) composts applied at 0, 20 and 40t/ha as well as inorganic fertilizer (NPK, 20:10:10) (100kg N/ha) on the remediation of a battery waste-contaminated site in Ibadan, Nigeria was assessed. No compost or NPK fertilizer served as the control. The experimental design was a randomized complete block with 4 replicates. Soil analysis before and at 1, 2, 3 and 12 months after compost application was carried out. Mean lead (Pb) concentration (134,000mg/kg) was high at this site. Twelve months after treatment, MSC and CPC applied at 40t/ha had reduced the plant available lead concentration in the soil by 69 and 49%, respectively, whereas 20t/ha had reduced the concentration by 58 and 34%, respectively. The relationships between soil lead and organic matter content (r=-0.75), phosphorous (r=-0.59) and pH (r=-0.77) were negative. NPK fertilizer had a limited effect (7% reduction) on Pb. Application of MSC at 40t/ha brought about a remarkable reduction in Pb concentration.
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Tomoyuki MAKINO, Takashi KAMIYA, Hiroyuki TAKANO
Article type: Article
2011 Volume 54 Issue 3 Pages
194-201
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The ability of the following seven biodegradable chelating agents (BCAs) to extract cadmium (Cd) from the soils of three paddies was tested in a tube-scale experiment to select an appropriate BCA for soil washing: 1-aspartate-N,N-diacetic acid tetrasodium; N-2-hydroxyethyliminodiacetic acid disodium; (S,S)-ethylene diamine disuccinic acid; dicarboxymethyl glutamic acid; nitrilotriacetic acid; sodium methylglycine diacetate, tribasic (MGDA・3Na); and d-gluconic acid. MGDA・3Na proved to be a promising BCA candidate for soil washing in terms of extraction efficiency, and a bench-scale test confirmed the effectiveness of MGDA・3Na for removal of soil Cd. In a pot experiment, soil washing lowered the Cd concentration in rice grains but negatively affected rice yield.
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Tomohito ARAO, Akira KAWASAKI, Koji BABA, Shingo MATSUMOTO, Yuji MAEJI ...
Article type: Article
2011 Volume 54 Issue 3 Pages
202-213
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There have been many cases in Japan of heavy metal contamination originating from old mines and smelters, and soil contamination of agricultural land has become a social issue. Arsenic (As) damage tends to occur more in paddy rice than other upland crops. In the 1970s and 1980s, both the mechanism of As damage of paddy rice and countermeasures for paddy fields were extensively studied. Here, we reviewed these studies to provide the background of As contamination in soils and crops in Japan as rice is a major source of cadmium (Cd) and As for people in Asia. We also investigated the effects of water management in rice paddies on the levels of Cd and As in rice grains. Results revealed that water management before and after heading is important for simultaneously managing Cd and As concentrations in rice grains. Recently, the pollution of soil, ground water, and farm products with aromatic arsenicals, such as diphenylarsinic acid, from industrial waste has become a serious problem in Japan. This article reviews the current state of arsenic contamination of agricultural soil in Japan and proposes a number of countermeasures.
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Genki KOBORI, Masanori OKAZAKI, Takashi MOTOBAYASHI, Kouji MATSUKAWA
Article type: Article
2011 Volume 54 Issue 3 Pages
214-221
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Three soybean (Glycine max) cultivars (Enrei, Tsurunoko, and Tsukui) were grown in a field with high concentrations (from 0.9 to 1.4mg kg^<-1> dry weight (DW)) of soil cadmium (Cd) to investigate the differences in Cd uptake and accumulation. The soil was a Haplaquept that had been utilized for paddy rice with summer irrigation for more than 100 years. In Enrei, Cd accumulated throughout the plant, ranging from 42μg plant^<-1> in the green seed (non-dry immature seed) stage 90-110 days after sowing to 32μg plant^<-1> in the mature seed (the mature, dried seed) stage 130-150 days after sowing. The translocation of Cd to mature seeds increased rapidly after green seed formation. The order of Cd concentration in the green seeds was Enrei<Tsurunoko<Tsukui, with mean values s of 0.21, 0.27, and 0.42mg kg^<-1> DW, respectively, and mature seeds with 0.27, 0.34, and 0.51mg kg^<-1> DW, respectively. Most of these values were higher than the allowable limits that were presented in the Codex Committee on Food Additives and Contaminants until 2004. Although the soil Cd concentration determines the Cd concentrations in edible plants, the Cd increase in the soybean seeds was not directly related to the Cd content in the soil. This suggests that Cd uptake varies among soybean cultivars and that low-uptake cultivars should be developed to decrease Cd intake by consumers.
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Shyamal Kumar PAUL, Choichi SASAKI, Nobuhiko MATSUYAMA, Kaori NODA, Bi ...
Article type: Article
2011 Volume 54 Issue 3 Pages
222-229
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We used a greenhouse to evaluate the effect of open system and closed system percolation on the accumulation of cadmium (Cd) in various parts of rice plants using a stratified 3.39mg/kg cadmium-polluted paddy field model with 12.5cm of soil dressing. Accumulation of Cd in all parts of the plant (roots, stems, leaves and grains) was found to be higher for open system percolation compared with closed system percolation models. Cadmium uptake in rice plants was enhanced in the open system percolation model due to the interaction with oxidation and reduction reactions. An oxidation-reduction value below-200mV in the closed system percolation model was effective for reducing cadmium accumulation in rice plants.
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HMP Lakmalie PREMARATHNA, GM HETTIARACHCHI, SP INDRARATNE
Article type: Article
2011 Volume 54 Issue 3 Pages
230-240
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Intensification of agriculture is likely to result in the accumulation of trace metals due to the excessive use of agrochemicals and amendments. Although agricultural soils can be a long-term sink for trace metals, data on trace metal concentrations are not available for Sri Lankan soils and crops. The objectives of this study were to determine the concentrations of Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn in soils and vegetable crops in locations where intensive agriculture has been practiced for more than 10 years and to establish relationships between trace metal accumulation and soil properties. Soils were collected at depths of 0-20cm under vegetable crops from 40 agricultural soils of low country (<100m elevation) and up country (>300m elevation) wet zones (1700-3300mm of annual rainfall) of Sri Lanka. Soil pH, CEC, organic matter % and available P and K were determined to establish the relationship between soil trace metal accumulation in soils and soil properties. Crops that were grown in the fields where the soils were collected were analyzed for trace metals. The mean concentrations (mg kg^<-1>) of the trace metals in the soils ascended as follows: Cd (1.18±0.26)<Ni (21±5)<Cu (51±26)<Pb (54±49)<Zn (173±62). Among the tested soil properties, pH, CEC and available P showed significant positive correlations with some trace metals. Mean values (mg kg^<-1> dry weight) of the trace metals in the plants were 0.59±0.44 for Cd, 11±6 for Cu, 13±9 for Ni, 8±3 for Pb and 40±20 for Zn. Elevated levels of Cd, Cu, Ni, Pb and Zn were observed in both the up country and low country wet zone soils, compared with uncultivated soils. Measured mean values of Cd in a few soils exceeded the maximum allowable limits imposed by the CEC 1986 standard; however, Cd concentrations in the tested vegetable crops were below the maximum permissible levels given by the WHO/FAO in 2009. The Cd to Zn ratio in the studied soils indicated safer limits for Cd in more than 95% of the studied soils. These results provided initial evidence of accumulation of trace metals in Sri Lankan soils and leafy vegetables, emphasizing the importance for further investigations.
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Santiago MAHIMAIRAJA, Nanthi S. BOLAN
Article type: Article
2011 Volume 54 Issue 3 Pages
241-248
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Arsenic (As) contamination of soil and water is widespread and poses a serious threat to plants, animals, and humans. There has been a growing interest in developing means for the remediation of As-contaminated ecosystems. Here, studies were conducted to examine the uptake of arsenite (As^<III>) and arsenate (As^V) from water and soil by mustard plants, and the results revealed that both the As content and its uptake by mustard plants were significantly affected by the varied levels of As (As^<III> and As^V) and phosphorus (P) in the soil and the water. An increased As concentration markedly increased As uptake by plants, and the effect was more pronounced with As^V than with As^<III>. The addition of P was found to inhibit the uptake and accumulation of As in plants. In general, roots accumulated larger amounts of As than shoots and flowers, and P addition was found to decrease the bioavailability of As, particularly As^<III>. Two types of soil (Egmont and Manawatu) differed significantly in terms of influencing the bioavailability of As. However, a high rate (500mg kg^<-1>) of P application was found to increase the bioavailability, and thus the uptake, of As in plants. The results provided evidence of P-induced As mobilization in contaminated soil at high rates of P addition. In addition, the introduction of earthworms to contaminated soil further increased As bioavailability.
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Deepali JOSHI, Prakash Chandra SRIVASTAVA, Prashant SRIVASTAVA
Article type: Article
2011 Volume 54 Issue 3 Pages
249-256
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In greenhouse experiments, the toxicity threshold limits of cadmium (Cd) were evaluated for amaranthus, fenugreek and buckwheat grown in a mollisol fertilized with varying levels of farmyard manure (FYM). The soil treatments involved factorial combinations of three levels of FYM (0, 2.23 and 4.46g kg^<-1> soil) and seven levels of Cd (0, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100 and 150mg Cd kg^<-1> soil). Increasing levels of Cd in the mollisol decreased the dry matter yields. The toxicity threshold limits of Cd for 10% reduction in the relative yields in 0, 2.23 and 4.46g FYM kg^<-1> soil were 7.3, 30.5 and 11.0mg Cd kg^<-1> dry matter in amaranthus, 2.5, 3.6 and 4.9mg Cd kg^<-1> dry matter in fenugreek and 6.4, 21.0, 16.0mg Cd kg^<-1> dry matter in buckwheat, respectively. The toxicity threshold limits of 0.1 M HCl-extractable Cd in soil amended with 0, 2.23 and 4.46g FYM kg^<-1> soil were 2.0, 4.5 and 2.2mg Cd kg^<-1> soil for amaranthus, 2.5, 5.0 and 22.2mg Cd kg^<-1> soil for fenugreek and 2.8, 12.5 and 19.0mg Cd kg^<-1> soil for buckwheat, respectively. The toxicity threshold limits of 0.005 M DTPA (pH 7.3)-extractable Cd in soil amended with 0, 2.23 and 4.46g FYM kg^<-1> soil were 1.3, 2.6 and 2.1mg Cd kg^<-1> soil for amaranthus, 1.6, 2.9 and 9.6mg Cd kg^<-1> soil for fenugreek and 1.6, 11.5 and 6.9mg Cd kg^<-1> soil for buckwheat, respectively. Based on plant tissue concentrations of Cd, amaranthus was less susceptible to Cd toxicity than fenugreek and buckwheat. Application of FYM to soil helped to reduce uptake and mitigate toxicity of Cd in leafy vegetables.
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Peter BECK, Barry MANN
Article type: Article
2011 Volume 54 Issue 3 Pages
257-277
Published: 2011
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Monitored natural attenuation (MNA) has the potential for passive remediation of dissolved phase petroleum hydrocarbon impacts in groundwater. The successful application to any groundwater contamination situation is dependent on a number of factors. Soil conditions affect both the physical and chemical aspects of natural attenuation processes. Key soil-related aspects include retention of hydrocarbon, groundwater flow regime and hydrocarbon degradation rate. Risk is another element that needs to be considered, particularly in relation to volatile vapors that could affect human health. Therefore, the risk aspects, both present and future, need to be understood. Finally, the nature and character of the source is a critical aspect that establishes whether monitored natural attenuation can be utilized to manage or remediate dissolved phase hydrocarbons in groundwater. While from a technical standpoint MNA would revolve around primary, secondary and tertiary lines of evidence to demonstrate that natural attenuation is occurring, soil properties, risk and source aspects also need to be considered in decision making. Cooperative Research Centre for Contamination Assessment and Remediation of the Environment (CRC CARE) identified the need for and developed a guidance document for the implementation of MNA strategies in Australia focusing particularly on the technical aspects of the process.
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Junta YANAI, Kei YAMADA, Hidekazu YAMADA, Yusuke NAGANO, Takashi KOSAK ...
Article type: Article
2011 Volume 54 Issue 3 Pages
278-284
Published: 2011
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To estimate the effect of aging on the availability of heavy metals in soil, the relationship between availability of metals and time after contamination was investigated with a range of soils and metals. Five metals, nickel (Ni), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb), were added as nitrate solutions (2.5mmol kg^<-1> for single metals; 2.5mmol kg^<-1> for mixed metals, or 3 times their background levels as single metals) to 4 kinds of soil samples with variable chemical properties: dune soil (Psamments), alluvial soil (Aquents), red soil (Udults) and volcanic soil (Udands). The soils were incubated at field capacity for 1 day, 1 week, 2 weeks, 4 weeks or 6 months, and the exchangeable (readily available) fraction was extracted with 1M ammonium acetate by ion-exchange reaction. The available fraction of the metals was extracted with 0.005M DPTA solution (pH 6) by chelating reaction. The concentrations of the extracted metals were then determined by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy. The quantity of metals in the exchangeable and available fractions under single metal contamination conditions at the same rate (2.5mmol kg^<-1>) were generally in the order of volcanic soil<red soil<alluvial soil<dune soil for soils and in the order of Cu/Pb<Ni/Zn<Cd for metals. Mixed metal contamination conditions considerably increased the quantity of metals in both the exchangeable and available fractions, especially for Pb and Cu, compared with single metal contamination. For realistic metal contamination at the rate equivalent to 3 times the background level of the metals, a temporal decrease of metal availability, i.e. aging, was evident, especially for red soil with a high amount of oxides and for Ni and Zn. Temporal changes, however, diminished to <3% per week after 4 weeks for all soils and metals. These results enabled us to understand the natural attenuation of metal contamination and assess the risk of soil contamination by determining exchangeable or available fractions of metals in 4-week incubated soils after artificial single or mixed metal contamination.
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Klaus BERGER, Alexander GROENGROEFT, Carsten HARMS
Article type: Article
2011 Volume 54 Issue 3 Pages
285-293
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Since 1995/1996, the water balance and long-term performance of a 4-m thick landfill cover system with layers composed of processed dredged material have been measured in situ in large-scale lysimeters (test fields) on the dredged material Francop landfill in Hamburg, Germany. A 1.5-m thick barrier layer of landfill cover was constructed of processed fine-textured dredged material and was covered by a 1.0-m thick lateral drainage layer composed of medium sand separated from the dredged material. The lysimeters were integrated in the landfill cover and were constructed using an identical technique to ensure representative measurement results. For a period of greater than 12 years until the end of data evaluation in November 2007, the cover system performed well. The average discharge below the barrier layer was 16mm/yr and was nearly constant throughout the year with only slight seasonal variations. The main reasons for the good performance were the large thickness of the barrier layer, the large overload on the barrier, the 'slow' lateral drainage layer, and the presence of a root barrier that smoothed inflow into the drainage layer. Due to the material used and the slow biological, mechanical, and hydrological processes, the water balance and discharge measurements for monitoring of the cover system will be continued.
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Mostafa CHOROM, Sara Sharifi HOSSEINI
Article type: Article
2011 Volume 54 Issue 3 Pages
294-301
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During the Persian Gulf War in 1991, an estimated 6 to 8 million barrels of crude oil were spilled, and a great portion of these pollutants was transported to Khuzestan's soils. Contaminated soil is a risk to the environment, and therefore, reclamation of polluted soil is vital. To address this problem, bioremediation methods were investigated. In this study, soil was artificially polluted with 1% crude oil, and sewage sludge was used at 2 levels equivalent to 50 and 100T/ha of field application. Soils were kept at 25-30℃ and 60% of field capacity for 5-10 weeks. The soils were then analyzed for the presence of hydrocarbon-degrading heterotrophic bacteria and chemical properties. Oil degradation was measured by the oil soxhlet extraction method and gas chromatography. Results showed that hydrocarbon-degrading heterotrophic bacteria increased from 6×103CFU/g soil to 2×1010CFU/g soil and the soil C/N ratio decreased from 6 to <3. In addition, sewage sludge treatment degraded the oil by 43-61%. Gas chromatography showed the reduction of all normal alkanes and isoprenoids, such as phytane and pristine. The present findings suggest that sewage sludge treatment of oil contaminated soil at 100T/ha over 5 weeks can cause optimal oil degradation and is therefore a suitable treatment for bioremediation.
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Radim VACHA, Hana MACUROVA, Jan SKALA, Jarmila CECHMANKOVA
Article type: Article
2011 Volume 54 Issue 3 Pages
302-313
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The aim of the study was to evaluate and select suitable methods for the analysis of arsenic (As) in soil and assess the risks following the increased As content in soil while considering various economical and analytical aspects. A sample set of 6 heavily contaminated soils was used to compare the application potential of common procedures for the determination of As forms in soils, and some new alternatives are suggested. The results showed that substitution of an analytically more demanding total As content analysis and sequential analysis for simple extraction using one-off agents seemed to be promising in many cases. Therefore, the comparison and statistical evaluation of a number of methods for As determination in the soil was proposed. The results indicated that using a simple combination of 1M NH_4NO_3 extraction and the Tamm method (determination procedure for amorphous Fe forms in the soil) was suitable for the risk assessment of As contamination without the need for additional, complicated sequential extraction procedures.
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Article type: Appendix
2011 Volume 54 Issue 3 Pages
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Article type: Cover
2011 Volume 54 Issue 3 Pages
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