Although Japanese industry grew rapidly after the Second World War, especially during the period of high economic growth, regional mining operations declined, primarily as a result of liberalization of foreign trade beginning in 1963. Some regional mining industries, however, were able to recover by developing other manufacturing operations.
This paper discusses the formation of industrial-communities accompanying the growth of mining industries and the reorganization of these industrial-communities as mining declined. The term industrial-community, as used in this paper, signifies a regional manufacturing enterprise developed and functionally organized around diverse industrial activities. After an overview of copper mines in Japan, the changing character of mining is described, and important factors in its development considered. Finally factors which brought about the successful recovery of once collapsed industrial-communities are examined.
The copper mines analyzed are those which had over 100 workers in 1967 (60 mines). The focus of this paper is on the Hitachi Mining-Manufacturing region located 130 kilom-eters north of Tokyo. Since Hitachi Mining was initiated as a modern industry in 1905, Nippon Mining Company and Hitachi Company Ltd. have played major roles in its develop-ment, but the mine started to decline in the early 1960's.
The results of the study are summarized as follows:
1. Japanese copper mines can be classified into four types; head office mines, associate head office mines, main operative branch mines, and general operative branch mines. A head office mine is where the head office of the enterprise is located. An associate head office mine constitutes the core of the company, with comprehensive production facilities it is here the enterprise originated, though it no longer is the head office mine. A main operative branch mine plays a major role in a certain type of production, while a general operative branch mine plays a role of less importance having minor production functions.
The above-mentioned four types change as mines decline from the head office to the general operative branch. The same type of change is also observed in manufacturing.
2. Both external and internal factors contribute to the formation of the industrial community. External factors are integrated copper production and access to market.
Internal factors are manpower resources, especially administrative-technical personnel. The head office mine contains a whole set of manpower including management, admini-strative-technical personnel, and operatives, but there are few head office mines. At an associate head office, management is lacking, and administrative-technical personnel are in charge of the entire operation. In Hitachi Mining, administrative-technical personnel actually took the leadership of not only production but also of the formation of the mining-community and local administration. A main operative branch has several limited admin-istrative-technical personnel and operatives. At a general operative branch the role of ad-ministrative-technical personnel is no longer important.
3. In terms of internal factors a marked difference became evident in the early 1960's when manufacturing industries grew rapidly and mining started to decline. While associate head office mines promptly reduced administrative-technical personnel by transferring them to subsidiary companies, the manufacturing industry as a whole, was expanding its ad-ministrative-technical personnel. Furthermore, in manufacturing, most of the retired admin-istrative-technical personnel remained in Hitachi and obtained positions at the manage-ment of Hitachi's affiliated and subcontract factories, which were newly established with the expansion of other industries. Mining operatives also took reemployment at Hitachi's subcontract factories.

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Studies in air transport geography are generally focused on air passenger flows between the airports. This study focuses on the areas from which air passengers are generated and into which they are absorbed in other words, airport hinterlands.
The purpose of this study is to delineate existing airport hinterlands based on domestic air passenger movements in Japan, and then, to clarify the internal structure of each of these hinterlands by studying the characteristics of air passenger flows.
The data for this study were derived from the Air Passenger Movements Basic Survey conducted on the 5th of November, 1931 by the Civil Aviation Bureau Ministry of Trans-port. Okinawa prefecture and the islands far from mainland are not considered in this study due to the inavailability of detailed data. The number of unit areas is 1, 204. The results of this study are summarized as follows;
1. The total number of hinterlands derived from this analysis is 37. The area of these hinterlands varies from one city to a number of prefectures, in which a single city is identified as small-scale hinterland and the other one as a large-scale hinterland in Japan. Particularly, airport hinterlands of Haneda and Osaka occupy more than five prefectures, where they are located in concentrated economic centers.
2. 1, 204 unit areas are classified into five groups according to characteristics of air pas-sengers by using factor and cluster analyses. Among these five groups, one is particularly complicated. Therefore, this paper only attempts to explain the internal structure of the hinterlands of four groups.
The hinterlands of Haneda, Nagoya and Osaka airports are identified as C-group, which is distinguished by air passengers for leisure, and D-group, which is for business. Most local airport hinterlands are constructed as A-group or B-group. In these hinterlands, many air passengers move to and from the Kansai and Chukyo regions or the Kanto region. However, there are also a few unit areas in which many air passengers move to and from different regions in the airport hinterlands which connect many airports.
3. Airport hinterlands in Japan can also be classified into the following six types.
(1) Kanto-connected type I: An internal structure of this type indicates a single pattern characterized by air passengers to and from the Kanto region.
(2) Kansai, Chukyo-connected type I: In this type, many passengers move to and from the Kansai and Chukyo regions. Therefore, the internal structure of this type also indicates a single pattern.
(3) Local-connected type : Air passengers who are generated from and absorbed into the hinterlands of this type move to and from a particular city or region. Its internal structure also indicates a single pattern.
(4) Kanto-connected type II: Hinterlands areas of this type are composed of A and B-groups in which the areas for B-group are larger than A-group. Furthermore, these areas expand radially from the airport.
(5) Kansai, Chukyo-connected type II: Many air passengers move to and from the Kanto region as well as the Kansai and Chukyo regions in the hinterlands of this type. In other words, the hinterlands areas of this type are composed of B and A-groups. A circular structure is also observed in these areas.
(6) The national type: In this type, air passengers move to and from many different regions. These hinterlands areas are composed of C and D-groups and are dominated by air passengers both for business and leisure. Moreover, areas characterized by air passengers for business are surrounded by areas for leisure. Therefore, an internal system of this type also reveals a radial pattern.
Hinterlands belonging to the national type are distributed in Central Japan. In the east, hinterlands of Kanto-connected type I and II dominate, and in the west, hinterlands of Kansai, Chukyo-connected type I and II dominate.

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By statistical treatment of air-pressure data at the summit of Int. Fuji, an attempt was made to discuss the year by year fluctuations in variability of the magnitude of North Pacific anticyclone during 1941-1985 in the relation to characteristic of summer. The air-pressure, at the height of the observation station (3, 772m), generally varies from 625 mb in winter to 650 mb in summer. The properties of summer is well discribed by a dominancy of the North Pacific anticyclone over Japan.
From the 45-year mean annual variation of the air-pressure at Mt. Fuji, it can be seen that the period from July through September, i.e., period including the midsummer, coincides with the one when the air-pressure is above 645 mb. Accordingly, the value of 645 mb is adopted as the representative of the dominancy of the North Pacific anticyclone in the present study. Then following four indices are defined. Nam ely, (A) first day of period above 645 mb in air-pressure at the summit of Mt. Fuji, (B) last day of the period, (C) total number of days for the period and (D) accumulated air-pressure above 645 mb.
In addition, (E) ending day of Baiu and (F) total number of days of south-high-north-low surface pressure pattern (summer-type pressure pattern) are discriminative for summer con-ditions. Correlation coefficients among the time series (A)-(F) were calculated. The correlation coefficients between (D) and (E) and between (D) and (F) were -0.556 and 0.712 respectively. The accumulated air-pressure is recognized as a significant indication for summer conditions.
Variation of the value of index (D) was represented to be at maximum stages in the beginning of the analyzed period (1942-4949), and in the middle (1960-1962), and at a minimum stage during the decade of 1950-1959. After 1963, the fluctuation of the index has been large (see Fig. 5). It indicates that the climate of summer has recently tended to be unstable. According to agricultural data, cold weather damages over Japan occurred twelve times throughout the analyzed period. All the damaged years except 1945, 1964 and 1969 were clearly in accordance with the negative anomaly of the accumulated air-pressure values.
In 1980, for example, unusual low temperatures were due to northeasterly cold air advecR tion following the blocking activities over the Sea of Okhotsk. The magnitude of North Pacific anticyclone was remarkably weak and the value of the accumulated air-pressure above 645 mb was reduced to 104. 1 mb day, only 55 percent of the mean value. We can thus investigate a variation of summer property using the indices mentioned above for analyses of the climatic change.

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