The aim of this paper is to describe the pastoral economy and cattle market selection methods of pastoralists of the nomadic Fulbe tribe in Nigeria, West Africa. This is considered in the context of environmental changes such as fluctuations in water level and also changes in political and social con-ditions including the oil boom and government policies regarding cattle breeding.
The research was carried out over about eighty days, in August and September 1990 and December 1991, in the Gongoshi and Gajenje areas of the Gongola state. Activities such as the pasturage of cows and sheep, the peddling of dairy products, and the sale of cows and sheep at regular markets were observed, and interviews were carried out through interpreters.
The results of this research are summarized as follows.
(1) The nomadic Fulbe move their residence seeking pasture in accordance with the water level changes of the Benue River in the rainy and dry seasons. In mid-November, when the water level goes down and flood plains become available for pasture, eamp sites are established on previously flooded fields. These are either chosen by the Fulbe themselves or established on designated pastureland set up according to pasture reserve law.
(2) The Fulbe breed more than one hundred cattle, a few dozen sheep and a few goats and donkeys. After the men finish the milking, herders start to graze the livestock at 8 a. m. every morning and return to the campsite at 4 p, m., In the dry season cattle graze during the night. The Fulbe's traditional medicines are used to maintain the health of their cattle and increase their productivity.
(3) The nomadic Fulbe earn a great amount of cash by peddling cows, sheep and dairy products. Cows especially are sold at high prices. It was also observed that unproductive cattle in their herds, including sick or sterile cows, are sold on an irregular basis. However, the Fulbe mostly use this money only to buy food, seldom purchasing any luxuries. This is because of their nomadic existence and the poverty of their material culture. They can maintain themselves for one year on the money gained from the sale of three cattle apart from the few cattle used in weddings and Moslem naming ceremonies.
The cattle breeding economy of the Fulbe is incorporated in the Nigerian economy, and their traditional subsistence lifestyle has not been influenced by the economic growth in the oil boom. This is indicative of the difference between pastoralists and, farmers and urban people.

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The social environment surrounding the aged has changed, and so have the aged themselves for example, diversification of their sense of values and change in their life styles. It is necessary to study their life space to obtain a good understanding of the quality of life in an aging society.
The author examined the spatial extent of the aged's social relations when they had leisure (also called “relation space”) and the factors which formed those relations. As leisure activity has great importance in their lives and it is said that the elderly population will increase in the suburbs, the uthor selected Akiba-cho (Totsuka-ku, Yokohama City), which is 40km from Tokyo, for studyarea.
The research was done in two steps. In the first survey, the author used a questionnaire to investigate the relation spaces of the aged and their attributes. Secondly, the relationship between the life space at younger ages and the current relation space of the aged was examined individually by interveiws.
The findings are summarized as follows:
1) The relation space of the aged is influenced by the life space of their earlier days, and their familiar area is determined by the social relations formed after they grow old. The relation space of a male newcomer expands beyond his residential space (within 5km of his home) because he tends to keep up and form non-local relevant relations (work-relevant relationships and non-local relevant friendships) under the influence of his work experiences. However, it seemed hard for them to form social relationships at their town level (within 1km). On the other hand, female newcomers and indigenous people had social relationships inside the residentioal space. A woman newcomer formed local relationships through everyday life after she had become old. At the same time, relations with neighbors became close. Indigenous people had close relations during their whole lives, as they had had very close relationships with their neighbors since they were younger.
2) Owing to the characteristics of the suburban areas working place distant from home, the population is fluid-the current social relationships and the relation spaces differed from those of their younger days. Thus they had to adapt to the changes in their relation spaces.
Considering the two factors mentioned above, it can be said that the further their relation space extends, the more abundant their life chances will become. However, it is difficult for them to form and maintain relations owing to the limitations on their bodies, time, families, and budgets. It is easier to maintain the relations within their residential space where they live their everyday lives and can go out freely, but the social relationships that are possible in such a restricted area are limited in both quality and quantity. So the author thinks that it is necessary to focus on the city-level range (within 5 to 15km from their homes), which is beyond their residential space but is familier to them because they go there to shop or for other reasons. The author also thinks it is necessary to regard the city-level as the relation space in which the aged can live a full life. It can be said that the importance of this range will increase as the number of highly educated aged increases and their needs in various dimensions of their lives become diversified and advanced.

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Field work was carried out to investigate the regional characteristics of the concentration of major chemical constituents of snow cover from the coastal area of the Japan Sea to the mountain ranges of central Japan during the winter (January) of 1985.
The snow cover in the interior highlands, such as Sugadaira and Takamine, was dry, and therefore the total snow cover retained the concentration of chemical constituents in the snow fall there. In contrast, in the Takada plain, a heavily snow-covered plain of the coastal area in Japan, the lower part held granular snow which contained melt water, and only the upper new snow layers retained the condition of accumulation of chemical constituents.
The ratios of concentration of each of the chemical constituents in the new snow suggested that the Na⁺, Mg²⁺, and Cl^- originated from sea water.
The spatial distribution of the concentration of eash chemical constituent in the new snow which accumulated during one series of snowfalls under a winter monsoon situation was claritied. The concentration of chemical constituents originating in sea water decreased farther inland. This distribution was related not only to the distance from the coast but also to topography and the regional differences in cumulus development due to the topography. Excess Ca²⁺ and SO₄^2- from the expected value originating in sea water were found. In particular, the distribution of excess Ca²⁺ showed strong regional characteristic, which suggested that there was another source of Ca²⁺ besides the sea water in the inland areas. Meanwhile, most of the samples contain excess SO₄^2-, which decreases with decreasing amounts of accumulated new snow.
The spatial distribution of NO₃^- concentration in the new snow cover in Sugadaira showed a large variation. The results suggested that the source of the nitrogen oxide was in the neighborhood of the sampling points.

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Translatory flow is observed in a ground water runoff during a rainstorm. Layered snow cover is considered to play the same role as soil layer for water runoff. The purpose of this paper is to report the translatory flow phenomena of snow meltwater in a snowpack. Studies on the snowmelt runoff in a snowpack were carried out at eastern Canada and Hokkaido. In the case of Canada, the hydrograph of snowmelt is separated into “old water” (meltwater in the lower snowpack) and “new water” (meltwater percolated from surface snow layer) by the concentration of NO₃^-. The concentration of NO ₃^- in meltwater in the lower snowpack is estimated to be higher than that in meltwater generated from the surface snow layer. Separated “old water” is the major component of early snowmelt runoff during a day. This quick response of the meltwater in the lower snowpack requires a translatory flow mechanism in the snowpack. “New water” is the major component of the recession limb of the hydrograph. The same phenomena were observed at Moshiri, Hokkaido, during the 1988 snowmelt. Two peaks on the meltwater hydrograph were observed. The first peak is composed of the meltwater in the lower snowpack; the major component of the second peak is the meltwater percolated from the surface snow layer. The translatory phenomenon in a snowpack is not observed when the depth of snow cover is not so thick.

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