The science and technology policy research is still in its infancy, lacking a solid theoretical framework. It is of prime importance to develop an appropriate theory according to which data should be gathered and organized. In a practical level, sound cooperation between researchers, administrators and statesmen is crucial. Japan needs in particular a mechanism to provide incentives to establish such a cooperative climate, because the country's administrators generally lack expertise in policy research while researchers have little experience of participation in administration. A system should be sought that permits rational and effective scitech policymaking, including discussions and negotiations among stakeholders, which are important not only as the democratic policymaking procedure but also as a process of deepening understanding of problems and finding solutions that are not expected from simple analyses. The innovation policy program recently started by MEXT is thus timely and highly welcome in view of the present situation.

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This special issue focuses on the development of the 'Science of Science, Technology and Innovation Policy' in Japan. The objective is to foster and deepen the discussion over the future direction toward the development, as well as reviewing and collecting the related studies and efforts. This issue comprises of two volumes and three parts. Part I tries to illustrate the shape and future direction of the 'Science of Science, Technology and Innovation Policy', by reviewing the background and driving forces of this recent movement, as well as the efforts in Science and Technology Policy Studies and Innovation Studies which are expected to play central roles. Interdisciplinary efforts are necessary to build the 'Science of Science, Technology and Innovation Policy'. In Part II, the expected contributions from the major disciplines are discussed. A number of leading researchers in each discipline introduce relevant theories, methodologies and case studies in their fields, as well as the future prospects. Part III focuses on bridging science and policy. Issues and initiatives of various phases of policy formation process, which are required to make use of research results in the practice of policy formation, are discussed. In this volume one, one paper for Part I, four papers for Part II, from the viewpoint of economic theories, empirical economics, management and sociology, and four papers for Part III are presented.

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Many countries in the world have recognized the need for construction of the 'Science of Science, Technology and Innovation Policy', and many efforts have been underway to pursue the evidence-based or informed policy-making. This paper examines how we proceed further, not merely to develop the "Science of Science and Technology Innovation Policy" as a science, but also to evolve the policy-making process, by utilizing the research results in the actual policymaking. This firstly reviews the current situation of political commitments, research grants and formation of relevant research and policy communities, in the United States, Europe, and Japan. Secondly, this illustrates the research agendas for the science, by over viewing the relevant policy issues and research areas. Lastly, this discusses the necessity for building up the system for utilization of evidence in policy-making process, in addition to policy-issue based collection of research and its comprehensive evaluation.

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The purpose of this article is to introduce some methodologies of economics that can enhance the program of "science of science, technology and innovation policy" to non-economist readers. I classify the theoretical elements into three parts: incentive, market and welfare, and knowledge and externality. It is important for policy makers to understand the ultimate goals of stakeholders so that the policy generates intended effects. By theorizing the purposeful behavior of stakeholders, policy makers obtain a hypothesis on policy effects that can be estimated, tested, and used for predictions. Welfare economics puts those purposeful stakeholders in the context of markets, and by using equilibrium analysis it provides a model of market- oriented policies such as deregulations and globalizations or labor market regulations in the field of science and technology. Finally, I describe some properties of knowledge, which is at the center of innovation and yet often fails to be properly supplied.

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In this paper, the contribution of empirical economic analysis to evidence based science, technology and innovation policy planning is discussed based on two case studies, (1) financial supports to firm's R&D by subsidies or tax measures and (2) innovation system reform policy such as university and industry collaboration promotion. It is important to make a good balance of "theoretical rigidness", "practicality by addressing important issues" and "quality of dataset". In addition, the results from empirical analysis should be interpreted with substantial reservations in terms of the limitations of economic theory and datasets.

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Management studies are concerned with analysis of individual enterprizes to understand their economic performance, while national science and technology policy, in contrast, aims at prompting science and technology for national economic growth. Today, however, as the relationship between technological advance and economic growth of a country is not straightforward anymore, and the science and technology policy increasingly more often needs coordination with other policy areas such as energy, environment or economy in general, the microeconomic findings from management studies become more important in policy formation. Findings from micro-analysis on the organizational behavior and the industrial dynamics will provide valuable insights and policy implications in ensuring science and technology policy to lead to the growth of the national economy and the competitive advantages of the firm.

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Scientific activities in the public sector are expected to promote the innovation and contribute to the development of industrial economies. However, recent decline of scientific capabilities in Japan has cast a question of how to reform the university system and facilitate the scientific activities, which has become the most important subject in the "Science of Science, Technology and Innovation Policy" project. In recent years, the demand from industry for the science-driven innovation has unprecedentedly increased. This trend has fostered the entrepreneurship among academic scientists and changed the norms in the scientific community. This paper outlines the traditional theories in sociology of science, and based on the authors' research and literature review, it discusses how the recent social trend has influenced and will influence the behavioral patterns of individual scientists and, as a whole, scientific advancement and industrial development. Finally, this paper offers implications for the future research of "Science of Science" from the sociological perspective.

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Since governmental frameworks for competitive funding programmes initiated various large-scale research projects have been implemented at existing and newly established research institutes. However, a managerial formula for these trials has yet to be set out at a university or public research institution level, hence it is urgently necessary to maximise the value of the outcomes through a strategic, operational and organisational approaches. In this report we reviewed the current context from the viewpoints of enlarged large competitive funding, crossorganisational collaboration and interdisciplinary/fusion-scientific initiatives. Then we pointed out three existing issues, endorsing post-funding evaluation, reflecting the results to the practices and returning the outcomes to social innovation. Then we argued significance of socioscientific study, in particular, econometrics, organisational management and managerial administration, providing two research cases. Finally, we discussed future perspectives, outstanding challenges and required actions for Japanese universities and public research institutions for further improvement.

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With the increasing importance of policy issues for science and technology and the growing role of scientific knowledge in policy making, the executive branch has steadily expanded its research and analytical capabilities. On the other hand, the legislative branch has lagged behind in such empowerment, in spite of the current expectation for a stronger legislative initiative and an increasing number of legislative bills about science and technology. In this paper, we compare the capability in Japan with that in the United States and find that the National Diet of Japan is characterized by a fewer institutions, smaller budgets, and a smaller number of expert staffers. It is desirable to enlarge the institutions, financial resources, and staff size of scientific advice to the Diet in order to effectively utilize the outcomes of science of science, technology, and innovation policy. Possible channels through which scientific advice flows to the legislative branch are numerous, ranging from supporting bodies within the legislature, a national academy, and interns at the parliament. They should cover (1) promotion of research and development and evaluation of its benefits and consequences; (2) exploration of scientific evidence and knowledge for policy making and analysis; and (3) assessment of potential impact of science and technology (e.g., technology assessment in a narrow definition).

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As the Science of Science, Technology and Innovation Policy program is carried out in Japan, efforts to secure the integrity of evidence-based policy making are needed, along with the promotion of research, human resource development, and system building. In other words, it is necessary to ensure that stakeholders share a common understanding on the relations between science and government, and fulfill their respective roles and responsibilities. Meanwhile, recently in Japan, much discussion has been done on the relations between science and government in general. The Japanese government is now moving toward enhancing the systems for scientific advice, while the Japan Science and Technology Agency (JST)'s Center for Research and Development Strategy (CRDS) has issued in March 2012 the draft principles regarding the roles and responsibilities of science and government in policy making. This paper summarizes various discussions that have been made recently in Japan on the relations between science and government, including the content of the draft principles, and point out that, in promoting the Science of Science, Technology and Innovation Policy program, related efforts are necessary.

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This study examines the effect of demographic characteristics and process factors of Japanese university spinoffs' top management teams on their performance from upper echelons perspective. Using our questionnaire survey on Japanese university spinoffs, we conducted regression analysis. As a result, it is revealed that high ratio of non-university members, heterogeneity, and the interaction effect of strategic consensus and private cohesiveness positively and significantly increase university spinoffs' performance. These results indicate that in order to achieve high performance, heterogeneity and cohesive communication in both business and private aspects on university spinoffs' top management teams are required. Additionally, with respect to the effect of top management team on firm performance, our results suggest that demographic characteristics and process factors can be discussed as separate factors.

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Seeds are one of the most important foundations for the stable supply of food and expansion of export of agricultural products. In this study, I investigated the breeding of new seed varieties (breeding of agricultural products) by using a questionnaire and factor analysis to clarify the appropriability factors of Japanese private sector. For the analysis, I divided vegetables and flowers on the basis of breeding characteristics. The results of the factor analysis showed that, in both vegetables and flowers, maintenance of breeding resources (genetic and human resources) was suggested as the appropriability factor. Moreover, especially in case of vegetables, protection of rights other than those of intellectual property and development and acquisition of technology for F1 plants were suggested as appropriability factors. In addition, in case of flowers, new breeding methods (e.g., gene modification technology) were suggested as a factor. The results of this study show that, in order to improve the R&D incentives of the private sector, it is necessary not only the viewpoint of a breeder's right but also the other system for appropriability. In addition, it is necessary to consider the acquisition of advanced technology as a function of appropriability.

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