Two experiments were conducted to determine calcium and phosphorus requirements for White Leghon female starting chicks. Total 650 day-old chicks were fed the diets of various calcium and phosphorus for four weeks.
The practical type basal diet was primarily composed of corn and soybean meal with 5% fish meal as a sole source of inorganic phosphorus, containing about 0.5% total phosphorus (inorganic phosphorus 0.1%) and 0.3% total calcium. Graded levels of calcium and phosphorus were furnished by calcium carbonate and dicalcium phosphate. Calcium and phosphorus requirements were determined by measuring weight gain, feed efficiency and percent tibia ash.
It was indicated that calcium requirement for normal growth and normal bone development was 0.83% in diet, which was a little lower than what was recommended by National Research Council. Total phosphorus required for normal growth and percent bone ash was 0.6 percent in diets. Optimum calcium: phosphorus ratio in diets was indicated to be 1.4:1.
It was suggested that about 0.2% inorganic phosphorus was required for normal growth and bone development, and the availability of organic phosphorus appeared to be much higher than what had been thought.

View full abstract

In previous report, authors suggested that better development of average body weight of chickens was observed in the cage rearing in comparing to the floor rearing, but there were no significant differences on the mortality in growing period among them. It was also found that birds reared in the multiple cage from 11 to 20 weeks of age should have 0.16-0.18m² of space per bird.
In this trial, effects of cage or floor rearing for growing period on performance in egg laying Period were observed. Strain cross of White Leghorns, White Leghorn (_??_ _??_)×Barred Plymouth Rock (_??_ _??_) and White Leghorn (_??_ _??_)×New Hampshire (_??_ _??_) were used. Each strain cross was divided into three groups: the first group was reared in the multiple cage up to 20 weeks of age; the second and third groups were reared in the multiple cage up to 10 and 6 weeks of age respectively, and then were reared on the floor up to 20 weeks of age. At the beginning of 21 weeks, 45 birds of each group and cross were put in the individual laying cages.
Age at the first egg laid was the shortest in the first group notwithstanding the cross, though White Leghorn matured later than other two crosses. Differences between rearing methods and crosses were significant at 5% level. Average egg weight of the first group was heavier than those of other two groups. There were no significant differences on egg production and mortality between rearing methods and strain cross.
From these results, authors think that multiple cages may be used for rearing of egg laying type pullets throughout the growing period.

View full abstract

A bioassay technique was developed for the determination of biologically available energy of various fats and oils, based on the response of day-old chicks to the dietary nutrients. The assay technique was already used for the determination of available energy of sweet potato4), which was refined and modified to be suitable especially for fats and oils.
Body weight gain of chicks can be shown as functions of dietary energy and protein levels under a certain conditions³⁾. When dietary protein level is kept constant, curve-linear relation will be obtained between chick's gain (y) and dietary energy level (x₂), which may be approximately linear within a certain narrow range of dietary energy level as described by Equation 3, where a and b are constants. Several other conditions
y=a+bx₂ (3)
should be satisfied to obtain the linear relationship, such as that dietary protein level should be kept constant, that dietary vitamins and minerals should be enough and so on.
With the linear equation obtained with standard diets of various energy levels, the energy level of unknown diet will be estimated from the y of chicks fed the diet. This is the fundamental principle of the new bioassay technique. From the previous data, it was suggested that the linear equation could be obtained with dietary protein level of 23% and dietary energy level, shown as percent of total digestible nutrients, between 60% and 76%.
The basal diet contained 10% of cornstarch, which was replaced by various levels of soybean oil in the standard diets and of test material in the test diets, while keeping the other 90% of ingredients constant. Therefore, all experimental diets contained the same amount of crude protein, i.e. 23%, and of minor nutrients, such as vitamins and minerals, with the various levels of energy.
The results obtained in Expt. 502 revealed that Equation 6 was suitable to describe the relationship, which was given in Fig. 1. Fiducial limit of the estimated energy was discussed and given by dotted line in Fig. 1.
Total digestible nutrients (TDN) were used in these experiment as unit of energy, because TDN is commonly used in this country. Since available energy estimated by this assay is a kind of net energy in nature, TDN is not the best unit of energy in this case. However, Equation 3 may be satisfactory regardless to the unit, so that available energy estimated by this assay can be given by any unit, if the energy contents of cornstarch and soybean oil be expressed by the unit.
Corn fermentation oil, which was the residue of alcohol fermentation, was determined to be 186% of TDN. True digestibility of this oil was 86.6% with standard deviation of 3.7%, so that TDN was calculated to be 195±8.3%. It is clear that two values of corn fermentation oil determined by two different methods were quite agreeable within the experimental error.

View full abstract

Fatty acid of sperm whale oil (SWO), usually in the form of sodium soap, was obtained by the saponification of SWO to separate the higher alcohol and hitherto used by the soap industry. Free fatty acid of SWO had the melting point of 19-20°C and gross energy of 9.34kcal/g, determined by the bomb calorimeter. This may be one of the fat sources of poultry feed which is very limited in this country.
In this paper, available energy of free fatty acid of SWO, its methyl ester, calcium and sodium salts was determined biologically based on the body weight gain of White Leghorn male chicks for 4 or 8 weeks as described in the previous papers⁸⁾. In each experiments, standard diets containing cornstarch or soybean oil or the mixture of them were fed to chicks to obtain the standard curve. In this paper, the available energy was given as percentage of total digestible nutrients (TDN), since this is common in Japan.
Available energy of free fatty acid of SWO was 173% of TDN with 95% fiducial limit of ±15%, which was comparable to that of fancy tallow¹³⁾. Available energy of methyl ester of SWO fatty acid was 137% and that of Ca-salt was 95% with fiducial limit of ±19%, which was determined biologically with diet containing 10% of Ca-salt, dietary Ca level being adjusted carefully. Sodium salt of SWO fatty acid had growth retarding effect, although only 2.5% of the salt was added in the test diet, and dietary Na level was adjusted by subtracting NaCl.
Although it was reported in the literature that the digestibility of free fatty acid was lower than that of corresponding glyceride, true digestibility of free fatty acid of SWO and its methyl ester was as high as 92-95%, which was comparable with digestibility of soybean oil, 97%. However, the growth rate of chicks fed fatty acid of SWO was slower than that of chicks fed soybean oil, while relatively little difference in feed intake, therefore in fatty acid intake, in digestibility of fatty acid, and in the amount of carcass fat accumulated, was observed between two groups of chicks. Caloric value of SWO fatty acid and soybean oil was similar, being 9.34 and 9.39kcal/g, respectively. Therefore, it was supposed that part of digested fatty acid of SWO was not utilized by chicks and lost as heat.
Calcium salt of SWO fatty acid with small amount of sodium used in the saponification of SWO was found to have nutritive value comparable with free fatty acid of SWO and beef tallow, when fed at the level of 2%. On the practical view point, it may be most reasonable to use Ca-salt of this type, with dietary level of about 2%.

View full abstract

Although wheat germ contains rather high levels of protein and fat, and also is an excellent source of water soluble vitamins and tocopherols, the use of raw wheat germ as an ingredient of poultry ration has been somewhat restricted because of its growth depressing effect. Recently, LEONG et al. (1960) found that feeding value of wheat germ could be increased by water treatment or in some cases by enzyme additions.
WILLINGHAM et al. (1961) and CREEK et al. (1961, 1962) also observed that autoclaving or mild acid hydrolysis improved the growth response. The growth experiments using cross-bred (Single Comb White Leghorn _??_ ×Barred Plymouth Rock _??_) day-old male chicks for 9 weeks were undertaken to know whether or not heat treatment, grinding or cold storage was effective on the growth response, and also to gain information how much of wheat germ could be substituted for corn-soybean diet.
As a result, cold storage and grinding of wheat germ. at 4°C was not effective, On the other hand, head treatment of wheat germ at 150°C for 5minutes improved the growth response. It was further observed that 9% of heated wheat germ could be substituted for corn and soybean meal mixture (1:2) without ill effect.

View full abstract

1. The results obtained concerning the testis, thyroid gland, and anterior lobe of pituitary of the same chickens used in the previous report are described here. In addition, the effects of TPA itself were proved repeatedly in Exp. III in which the doses of TPA were 0, 0.5 and 1.0% in the basal ration, free from the other food additives, i. e. pyrimethamine, prophylactics of coccidiosis and antibiotics, and in which the experimental period was for twenty days and twenty four days beginning from the third day after hatching.
2. The testes of chickens treated with TPA decreased in weight (Exp. I). Concerning the histological figures (Exp. II. III), swelling, hydropic degeneration, atrophy or destruction of the interstitial cells were noted, and the falling and disordered multiplying of epithelial cells into the cavity, the appearance of syncytial giant cells and secondary spermatocytal giant cells were observed in relatively many parts of seminal tubules. The epithelial cells fallen into the cavity degenerated before long. But these abnormal views of testes recovered gradually during the later half of the experimental period.
There was a delay in spermatogenesis also. The degree of the above abnormities, the delay in recovery from the abnormities and the delay in spermatogenesis corresponded with the dose of TPA, but at the 60th day there were few differences among all experimental groups.
3. In the follicles of the thyroid gland, a decrease in height of epithelia, an increase in size of follicles, and a decrease in figure of apocrine secretion were observed. In the early period of the treatment, many epithelial cells had fallen into atrophy, pyknosis and destruction, but they recovered from these abnormities gradually (Exp. II). Vacuolyzation with pyknosis of epithelial cells which was caused by the stagnant colloid was noted in the lot treated with 1.0% TPA in Exp. III.
4. In the anterior lobe of the pituitary, not a few δ-cells were atrophic and pyknotic and contained hyaline vacuoles in the lot of 0.5% TPA, and these conditioner were observed to be very extreme in the views of the lots of 1.0% and 2.0% in Exp. I. In these latter two lots a very remarkable appearence of drop-shaped substances strongly dyed with acid fuchsin was noted. A delay in development of δ-cells corresponded rather closely with the dose of TPA in Exp. II.
5. The α-cells in the anterior lobe of the pituitary had a tendency to increase in size and number with TPA treatment, and in considerably many birds there were markedly hypertrophied cells which lost their acidophilic granules. In the lot of 1.0% and 2.0% in Exp. I, very many α-cells fell into atrophy and pyknosis, and their granules hyalinized or agglomerated.
6. The kidney, adrenal gland and liver in Exp. III had almost the same changes as in the preveous report, i. e. glomerulonephritis and nephrosis in the kidney, hypertrophy of the cortical tissue in the adrenal gland, and an increase in number of degenerated hepatic cells in the liver, and the harmful actions of TPA when an overdose was treated to chickens were reaffirmed by this trial.
7. From the above results, it is thought that TPA has the effect of producing castration in chickens though it is temporary, and also has the effect of producing slight hypothyroidism. Thereupon TPA may be used as a food additive for broilers if the dose is appropriate because of its promoting action for the gain of body weight recognized by Tasaki (1964).

View full abstract