This study examines the details and background of the establishment of the Naval Aviator Preparatory Course Trainee (Yokaren) monument, and considers how memory and education concerning death in battle have been linked and what it has brought about. In the 1950s Ami Town, the “military city” was rebuilt through the relocation of the National Police Reserve Ordnance School, a process including the possibility of recollection of the damage caused by “militarist Japan” and the colonial rule of “imperial Japan.” However, colluding with economic benefits, these issues were concealed amid the formation of the basis of national memory. Since the monument was established in the “military city” where the dynamics of recollection and oblivion worked, its form was deeply affected by the concept of “honors.” The memory control function of this former military group was reinforced through conspiracy with the Self-Defense Forces in the national memory space called a “military city.”

 Following the process in detail, hints at undiscovered opportunities. In other words, the Kannon statue, a symbol of charity, and the naked child statue suggest the opportunity to resist the indoctrination gathering its participants into the “national story.” However, the “military city” did not allow these statues to be erected, excluding specific religious and political characteristics. As a result, the Yokaren monument was erected, featuring a Yokaren in uniform and a crew member in a flight suit side by side. The story created shows a child growing into adulthood through education and training. While simplifying the complicated inner side of Yokaren and excluding foreigners, the monument “honored” the “spirits of dead soldiers” who “sacrificed themselves” for their country. In this way, it planned to indoctrinate while overcoming the impossibility of representing death in battle. This death is thought to have been considered a promising subject for inspiring youth.

 Therefore, death was used for “proper guidance of youth” and “mental education” that attempted to internalize ideology. “Proper guidance of youth” included the aspect of an ideological control policy targeting the student movement. “Mental education” attempted to use the memory of death in battle for the purpose of fostering a view of life and death devoted to national defense. The circuit seems to have been reinforced from the prewar period on. It is thought that the memory of death in battle was accessible teaching material in fostering a view of life and death aware of mission of national defense, without directly arguing for dying for one's country. The relationship of complicity between the national memory of death in battle and “mental education” concerning the “military city” continued even after the 1960s. As postwar pedagogy has neglected the Self-Defense Forces and ignored death in battle, it will be necessary to reconstruct a history of postwar education that illuminates these issues.

 In this article, based on suggestions from Kant's Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View, we reconsider the teaching materials of moral education. Recent studies on moral education have explored how to use moral education teaching materials, aiming at “making learners consider certain values.” However, these studies emphasize the teachers' “intention” to pre-determine the contents that they aim to teach their learners, in relation to the concept of “mediation.” In this article, considering the possibility that educational contents may be restricted to what meets the teachers' “intention” in the concept of “mediation,” we use a reading of Kant's Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View to propose the concept of an “ordered and undetermined place” as a new conceptual framework for teaching materials which induce learners to consider certain values multilaterally and multidirectionally.

 Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View is, unusually among Kant's works, written for a general audience. This is because his anthropology constitutes not only a place indicating the results of his exploration of human beings, but also an educational place in which these results convey to his readers a deep understanding of humanity. This book can be characterized as teaching material in its provision of this educational place. In this article, from this viewpoint, we examine the character of this book as teaching material.

 Our discussion clarifies that, first, Kant depicted human beings contrary to his own “intention.” In Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View, he emphasizes the importance of demonstrating points of interest which contribute to the understanding of humanity, including those contrary to his own “intention.” Elsewhere, he prepares the ground for a deeper understanding of humanity by introducing order into the composition of the book: the variety and characteristics of humanity are treated as points of interest rather than mere fragments through the demonstration of the themes that give each one significance and the relationships among them, from the overall perspective of the exploration of humanity.

 Therefore, we may generalize the character of Anthropology from a Pragmatic Point of View as teaching material, as an “ordered and undetermined place.” The first characteristic of this concept is leaving educational contents undefined. This means showing multiple aspects of an object, instead of pre-determining what meets our “intentions.” It is possible in this way to make learners think, through the richness of these aspects, that the same value may have various aspects. The second characteristic is arranging various aspects in an ordered place to demonstrate their diversity properly. In other words, we give meaning to various aspects and relate them to one another from a broad perspective so that these aspects do not become mere fragments. We assert that the concept of an “ordered and undetermined place” with these characteristics can induce learners to consider certain values multilaterally and multidirectionally, unlike the concept of “mediation.”

 It is often said that academics and university faculty in general tend to be resistant to quality assurance. Most studies on academic resistance are premised on the idea that academic identities bring academics to resist to quality management, that is, the process through which the quality of education is standardized and managed by external stakeholders. In other words, academic resistance has been thought to be the means through which academics protect their identities, autonomy and interests. In addition, it has been widely discussed that the complex decision-making system of higher education institutions allows academics to easily resist quality assurance. These approaches, however, tend to regard academic resistance as inevitable, enabling quality assurance to be enforced only when other actors, for instance quality managers, deal with academics' refusal. Moreover, the literature often recognizes academics' various actions, including unintended avoidance and compliance, as forms of resistance, raising the question of what resistance is.

 Conversely, this study aims to reconsider the rationality of academic resistance by identifying the micro-level causes of these refusals and to make an opposition to the widely shared understanding of its inevitability. To this end, a case study of the Common Achievement Tests OSCE medical-school assessment test was conducted. The standardized and managerialist characteristics of OSCE enable empirical doubt to be cast on the idea that resistance is caused by academics' intentions to secure their identities.

 The analyzed data were gathered by participant observation of the OSCE in a medical school in Japan and interviews with some teachers. The two findings below were obtained.

 First, some academics expressed their resistance to OSCE by arguing that the basic and standardized skills that it tries to assess were not relevant to bedside learning, while other teachers were in favor of OSCE. The latter shared the belief that students develop step by step and that acquiring such basic and standardized skills first would enhance practical learning afterward.

 Second, though the belief in this form of students' development played an essential role in making OSCE acceptable by academics, it was an unwritten norm constructed and shared only in informal local communities. Hence, only a limited number of teachers took this view, unlike the majority, suggesting a rationale for their resistance. It was also implied that diffusing the idea of step-by-step development could ameliorate resistance.

 The findings suggest that it is the lack of shared understanding of how students (should) develop their competencies, an issue often taken too much for granted by each individual academic to be openly discussed, that causes academic resistance. Additionally, academics may change their attitudes toward quality assurance from resistance to active support when they reach an agreement on students' desirable manners of development. These conclusions, which reject the literature's understanding of the inevitability of academic resistance, will enhance discussions on how academics can actively participate in the quality assurance of their education.

 The purpose of this study is to reconsider the historical significance of the positivism of Masataro Sawayanagi's Jissaiteki-Kyoikugaku (Practical Educational Studies). There are many previous studies of the book, of which the historical significance seems to be settled, however, this significance can be greatly relativized by considering the history of science, pedagogy, and education research by teachers in the early 20th century. Based on the contemporary history thereof, this study reconsiders the theories of the book.

 Based on the history of science and pedagogy in the early 20th century, it can be seen that Jissaiteki-Kyoikugaku is an example of the argument that pedagogy becomes empirical science in the multifaceted development of positivism. The book attempted the elimination of "testimony" from scientific evidence. Moreover, it is found that it suspended without determining the method of measuring the educational fact.

 Based on the history of Japanese educational theory in the early 20th century, it can be seen that this book was a characteristic in the setting of the scope of educational facts, which attracted discussion. Moreover, it attempted to identify the authenticity and causality of facts by the “purpose of education”. In addition, the hierarchy created in research on educational facts was a particular characteristic in the positioning of historical research. The usefulness of pedagogy was also advocated leading to discussion.

 As a leader in educational practice, Sawayanagi called for the remodeling of pedagogy and collaboration between teachers and pedagogists. His theory that researches into “educational facts” became a force justifying systematic reform was especially important. He tried to give pedagogy a unique standpoint for the solution of the educational problems independently from other political and economic standpoints.

 Since the 20th century, pedagogy in Japan has been influenced by positivism. When exploring for the ideal form of pedagogy in contemporary society, it is important to consider how the pedagogy of the future should address positivism. Jissaiteki-Kyoikugaku is one of the first important works influenced by positivism in Japan. Research on this book provides important suggestions as to why positivism has come to be emphasized in Japanese pedagogy and what historical issues have remained unsolved.

 Needless to say, the construction of Japan's modern nation started with study abroad in developed countries in Europe and the United States, including illicit travel at the end of the Edo period; the new Meiji Government institutionalized this as a formal national project. A major challenge for the Meiji Government, for which Western modernization was an urgent issue, was how to produce and organize the Japanese students for this program. When the study-abroad system of the Ministry of Education was thereafter established and became the basis of the university and higher education system, how did the students, promised that they would become academic elites, experience the national control and management? This paper elucidates and examines the obligations imposed on students abroad on the Ministry of Education programs, and considers ideal forms of subject formation as an academic profession, paying particular attention to the act of diary keeping.

 “Students abroad on Ministry of Education programs” is a general term for government-sponsored students overseas (as of 1882) and Ministry of Education-sponsored students abroad (from 1892 to 1920). The obligations imposed on them were the mandatory provisions of the "Government-Sponsored Overseas Student Rules" enacted in 1882, the "Regulations for Ministry of Education-Sponsored Students Abroad" enacted in 1892 and "Instructions for Ministry of Education-Sponsored Students Abroad" of 1893, and the completely revised Regulations and newly enacted "Detailed Regulations for Ministry of Education-Sponsored Students Abroad" of 1901. This article takes up the cases of Tetsujiro Inoue (1856-1944), who became the first Japanese professor of philosophy at an imperial university, and Kinnosuke Natsume (Soseki, 1867-1916), who resigned from Tokyo Imperial University to become a full-time writer. The focus is on the ecriture of each diary.

 The students abroad, dispatched as university and higher education leaders, had various obligations, and their behavior during and after this program was widely regulated in order to carry out their assigned missions. The system aimed to replace foreign teachers with Japanese teachers, expanding the scope and number of students on the one hand and strengthening supervision and control on the other. They apparently kept diaries during this program because they had to deal with various reporting obligations to the Ministry of Education. Their subject formation was inseparable from the observance and fulfillment of their obligations, for which they constantly had to be conscious of the "nation" even overseas, while engaged in free and independent specialized research. Diaries functioned as a device to this end.

 Studying abroad, which involves traveling and living abroad and cross-cultural experience, has an extraordinary nature in itself; diary ecriture tames it and restores or reconstructs daily life and the subject. It may or may not, of course, have been successful; as well, there was a significant contrast between Inoue and Natsume alone. However, since the diaries they left behind are not compulsory products in their own right, but are based on voluntary will, it must be pointed out that their ecriture extends to the daily life and subject of research, potentially becoming a magnetic field exerting self-control.

 Due to the high mobility of populations, many countries, among them Japan, are facing challenges as multilingual and multicultural societies. Considering this situation, education preparing Japanese pupils for a multicultural and multilingual society is as important as education for pupils with foreign backgrounds. In this respect, multilingual education based on the concept of ‘language awareness” or ‘éveil aux langues” is gathering attention. While these multilingual education practices value the languages of pupils with foreign backgrounds and make Japanese pupils aware of linguistic diversity, they ignore the risk that Japanese pupils may retain their sense of superiority as the majority. This paper clarifies Eric Hawkins' concept of the subject 'language', the origin of the concept of 'language awareness', with the aim of relativising these educational practices and seeking education for a truly multilingual symbiotic society.

 This paper first reviewed the subject of ‘language's” educational objectives and the criticisms it faced. The subject ‘Language” was perfected in the 1970s, when changes in immigration and education policy brought together previously segregated pupils in the same classroom. Hawkins was concerned about two issues: low literacy and linguistic prejudice, which he summed up as the lack of pupils' 'autonomy'. To resolve this, he set the objective for the subject 'language' as ‘awareness of language”. For Hawkins, ‘awareness of language” was the conceptual view of language which the pupils would obtain when viewing language objectively. He believed that ‘awareness of language” could combat linguistic prejudice. This idea was criticised on two points: that meta-analysis of language might be nothing more than transcending static knowledge, and that it could overlook the inequalities created by the current social structure.

 To examine these criticisms, the details of the subject ‘language” are clarified in Chapter 2. In response to the first criticism at the curriculum level, ‘awareness” was thought to influence language use in other subjects. Therefore, the subject 'language' was considered to stimulate horizontal curriculum collaboration. In his topic book, Spoken and Written Language, Hawkins contrasted English and Chinese, aiming for the ‘awareness” that all language has ideographic function. Regarding the second criticism, Hawkins saw the curriculum as a sequence and set critical views of language in the Sixth Form, after the subject 'language'. In the topic book Using Language, he and Helen Astley posed analytical questions about language forms and language functions and presented value judgment questions about personal 'prejudice'. This also included references to prejudices arising from social structures, showing the potential of the subject ‘language”.

 This paper shows that the subject ‘language” tried to develop pupils' ‘awareness” as the basis for language use, linguistic tolerance and a critical view towards inequalities through the meta-analytical discussion of language. The subject ‘language” has two implications for Japanese education: 1. A curriculum with ‘language” as its core could serve as education for the multilingual symbiotic society; 2. The opportunity for all pupils to reflect on their language and to question their linguistic values can be worthwhile for true ‘linguistic tolerance”.

 In the field of pedagogy, the contrast of "theory and practice" has been used for over 100 years; many studies have been based on the structure “from theory toward practice”, trying to apply theories produced by science to educational practices. However, as pointed out in Niklas Luhmann's argument, we cannot assume a simple relationship between the education system and the scientific system in which the former is based on the theory developed by the latter, because the two systems belong to different functional systems and have each accumulated their own history. In other words, the latter judges every activity in the light of a binary code of true/not-true, whereas the former judges everything on the basis of a code of better/inferior. Hence, for example, a theory that is highly evaluated in the latter is not equally highly evaluated in the former.

 In addition, the scientific system, which was developed as a system of observation of other social systems, differentiates itself under the influence of existing concepts in other social systems. These differentiated sub-systems gradually subdivide and develop their own disciplines with the assistance of previously developed disciplines. At the same time, there are also disciplines that, as a result of relying on the existing concepts, seem to have, to a certain extent, correspondence with the differentiation of the social system; some similarity may be found in self-observation within these functional systems and disciplines within the scientific system. Each functional system and system of science, however, is based on a different binary code, and cannot be considered identical. For example, even when the scientific system of education is interested in 'how to educate better', it can only determine whether a finding such as that 'children are better educated by using certain methods' is true or not. An education system based on a different binary code would not necessarily accept the same finding.

 Furthermore, within the internal subdivision of the education system, the scientific system (education science) which observes them will also tend to subdivide itself to diversify its programme. In this context, the relationship between the sub-systems of science and those of the education system also tends to diversify. What applies to one combination of systems does not necessarily apply to another.

 The study of advertising analysis has key significance for education to date as the world leans toward post-truth thinking.

 It is well known that advertising analysis in Japanese schools was influenced by a teachers' resource book developed for media literacy education introduced into the English curriculum in the late 1980s in Ontario, Canada. However, Japanese studies on this topic overlook the fact that before media literacy education began in schools in Canada, a more basic advertising analysis was already a part of consumer education. As a result, an approach to advertising analysis focusing on understanding sophisticated techniques of consumer appeal came to be highly regarded, while the importance of the basic study of advertising analysis required by today's society remains unrecognized.

 Based on the above recognition, this paper investigates the history of what the study of advertising analysis aimed to achieve in consumer and media literacy education in Canada. Specifically, it examines the development of advertising analysis in secondary school consumer education from the 1940s, the early years of consumer education in Canada, to the 1980s, using examples from Alberta and British Columbia. This is followed by an investigation into the positioning of advertising analysis in media literacy education in the teachers' resource book developed by Ontario's Ministry of Education in 1989.

 The results of this investigation are as follows. First, the teaching guide of the 1940s in Alberta positioned advertising as one of the sources that provided product information in order for consumers to make rational decisions. As well, a textbook written by an Alberta educator in the 1960s focused on language techniques in advertisements and encouraged students to evaluate the objectivity of the product information. It is at this point that the fundamental approach to the study of advertising analysis in consumer education was established.

 In the 1980s, however, a collection of educational materials on consumer education published by the Ministry of Education and Ministry of Consumer and Corporate Affairs in British Columbia included an item with a different approach. It reflected the interests of its creators, the advertising self-regulatory organization and a consumer goods company, and claimed that the “spirit” of the product represented in advertisements is a factor in a consumer's purchase decision.

 The push to recognize this intangible factor in advertising was also seen in a teachers' resource book for media literacy education in Ontario. In this book, advertisements were basically regarded as texts, like literary works, that can be used to train students to understand techniques for interpretation of their meaning and value.

 These developments seem to imply progress in the study of advertising analysis. However, focusing on the literary value of techniques and disregarding factual information in advertisements correspond to a recent trend of relativizing objective facts. The history presented here reveals the problem with our educational mindset, where we tend to see the changing nature of the study of advertising analysis as progress rather than an issue.

 This study focuses on the store bookkeeping movement in order to examine accounting education for Japanese retailers in the 1930s. While previous studies have covered education in commercial schools for employees of large businesses, there is a lack of research on the vocational education of employees of small-scale retailers. Educational activities by merchants' associations and prefectural departments of commerce and industry played an important role for small-scale retailers with regard to this type of education.

 First, the study covers the realities of retailers' bookkeeping in the 1930s. As small-scale retailers faced economic hardship, their lack of bookkeeping knowledge became an issue. A survey of small-scale retailers during this period noted that they experienced more accounting deficiencies. However, one issue noted in bookkeeping education is the gap between the accounting techniques in schools and those required of small-scale retailers.

 Second, the study examines the development of the store bookkeeping movement. One issue of bookkeeping education to date was its unsuitability for the realities of small-scale retailers. This movement surveyed the bookkeeping style required for small-scale retailers, and conducted training sessions based on these surveys. In the late 1930s, bookkeeping education for retailers spread nationwide, partly because it was in line with the educational activities of merchants' associations.

 Subsequently, the study touches on accounting techniques in small-scale retailers from the following two perspectives. First, it focuses on the distinction between store accounting and household finances. One of the criticisms of retailers' old-fashioned management methods was the confusion between store accounting and household finances. However, since maintaining family life was the highest priority for family-owned retailers, they studied bookkeeping for household as well as store accounting purposes. Next, this section discusses bookkeeping education by industry. Instead of using standard bookkeeping, the leaders of the store bookkeeping movement taught retailers bookkeeping created by merchants' associations organized by industry or region. This is because bookkeeping methods differ depending on the products being sold.

 Thus, the need to learn accounting methods according to the realities of each retailer led to the spread of bookkeeping education by merchants' associations. Different accounting skills were required by company employees and small-scale retailers. This difference led to different evaluations of the content taught in schools.