To bridge the mutual separation between fundamental studies and the clinical studies, or the gap between developmental principles and educational methodology, we propose a pragmatic developmental model of language. The model is represented in the form of space that expands and deepens with developmental processes. The space is comprised of three axes. The first is the stratification of meaning, i.e., technical term meaning vs. symbolical connotation. Second is the pattern of understanding, i.e., causality vs. story-making in narrative construal. The third consists of goal domains of language usage, i.e., self-formation vs. construction of knowledge. We view the development of language use as an expansion of both poles on each axis. This language development model has implications for the reform of educational methods.

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The study of developmental psychology has made great progress over the past few decades. For example, the Japan Society of Developmental Psychology now has ten times as many members as it did at the time of its foundation in 1989. Expectations for progress have increased and many people have entered the profession of developmental psychology, which has brought about its institutionalization in society. These trends seem acceptable at a glance from the standpoint of the JSDP, but its institutionalization might lead to a narrowing of its framework as cut off from the essential world of humanity in which we conduct our scientific inquiry. For example, we might tend to reduce our understanding of the development of children to their abilities and traits, yet lose sight of how they live in the real world. As to the credential system for clinical developmental psychologists, we should transcend its focus on individual ability, lest our current emphasis on the individualization of human beings cause us to lose our sense of shared humanity. In sum, the task for developmental psychology is to go beyond the framework of individualization, seeking a new paradigm to understand humanity.

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From an epigenesist viewpoint which emphasizes the role that developmental plasticity plays in evolution, Gottlieb's hypothesis of behavioral neophenotypes suggested that genetic assimilation may provide a general model to conceptualize the evolution of new species. The role of heterochrony was also considered as an important factor for the modification of ontogeny. A discussion was presented to suggest the developmental and evolutionary implications of the supine position of human infants for (1) the large size of neonates, (2) the emergence of "childhood" and caregiving by multiple caregivers, (3) the "trade-off' in mother-infant interaction, (4) general movements, (5) self-contact behaviors, and (6) manipulation of objects. Greenspan and Shanker's hypothesis was also considered, to suggest the importance of the development of emotional organization and mother-infant communication, and accordingly the supine position, in order for representation to emerge in human ontogeny. Lastly, using a four-dimensional ultrasonography with human and chimpanzee fetuses, ongoing comparative developmental research conducted by the authors was presented to promote an understanding of the early development of behaviors and the implications of the development of these behaviors for the cognitive and emotional development and evolution of both species.

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It seems that the visualised data (photographs, videos, films) used in the study of the developmental psychology has enormous accumulation. This has occurred because of technical improvements since the 1970s. However, within developmental psychology domain, theorizing about visual media has not yet explored deeply. It is especially on the consideration of the visual media use as the methodology of the researcher than the elucidation of the cognitive development of visual media. It seems that it is reducing the possibility of the visual media unfairly as a result of this. It is urgent to consider the visual media as connected with the developmental phenomenon and to be concerned with not merely placing the visual media as a tool of the assistance of the data making. I refer to the method of usual people and the other science disciplines which have already invited new development of the visual media usage. I propose possibility of the key positioning of and the theorization of the visual media in the near future of the developmental psychology.

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In Study 1, the manual activities of an infant from birth to 1 year of age were observed by her mother. The infant showed functional asymmetries before she began reaching, which were assumed to be the basis for manipulation. The functional asymmetries were consistent throughout the observation period, and were not related to the dominance of the reaching hand. Right-hand dominance was related to a sequential factor, while left-hand dominance was related to a spatial factor. Stronger lateralization was observed in skillful and manipulative activities on the same day. Study 2 investigated developmental changes of dominance in pointing and patting. Although right-hand dominance in patting was consistent, left-hand dominance in pointing changed going into the toddler period. The results suggested that level of manipulation was an important factor for lateralization, as related to the level of manipulation and onset of hemispheric specialization.

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Two experiments examined aging effects in disengagement of attention from face stimuli. In Experiment 1, 10 undergraduate students (Mean age=21.2 years) and 13 older people (Mean age=68.8 years) were first presented a normal human face stimulus in the center of the monitor screen. Then the face stimulus was removed and replaced by presenting a target on the right or left side of the screen. As soon as they detected the target, the participants were to press the keyboard button on the same side of the screen as the target. Four different time intervals were used to investigate the facilitation effects for disengagement of attention. In Experiment 2, the same participants as Experiment 1 were exposed to one of three facial expressions (neutral, happy, or anger) and told to press the keyboard button in the same manner as in Experiment 1 when the target appeared. In Experiment 1, older people tended to react faster to the face stimulus disengagement than the other stimulus. In Experiment 2, the two age groups showed the same reaction to the three facial expressions.

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Parent-child relations comprise a dynamic process characterized by conflict and affiliation. Based on this perspective, 24 mothers were interviewed about times when they felt negatively toward their children, from the time of the child's birth through age two. Narrative accounts were analyzed for mothers who developed negative feelings during this period. Mothers' perspectives were based on the conflict between their children's development, their principles of childrearing, and their own resources. Two different processes were notable in relation to child development. At first, mothers did not understand their children's behavior well. But when the children were a year old, mothers treated them as children with personalities. In addition, the mothers were protective of their children during the first year, whereas in the second year they began to consider it their responsibility to be socialization agents of their children.

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Study 1 analyzed young children's facial expressions, search behavior, and verbal answers when they watched magic tricks. Participants were 3-year olds (n=29), 4-year olds (n=34), and 5-year olds (n=33). The results were as follows. Three-year olds' facial expressions did not change much even while watching the magic trick, and they did not display search behavior. There were more pleasurable expressions and search behavior among the four-year olds, and even greater pleasure expressions and search behavior among 5-year olds. In Study 2,86 children who had participated in Study 1 performed a fantasy/reality distinction task. Children who had shown pleasurable expressions when they saw the magic trick in Study 1 correctly recognized the fantasy/reality distinction in Study 2.

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