This research examined the effects of attachment style on traumatic symptoms in early adolescence (N=146, Age Mean=13 years 4 months, SD=W months). The participants who had experienced object loss were in 10 residential institutions for children. Girls scored higher on traumatic symptoms than did boys, and anxious/ambivalent attachment style scores were positively related to traumatic symptoms for both genders. In addition, the traumatic symptoms of older boys were higher than younger boys, and anxious/ambivalent attachment style scores aggravated their traumatic symptoms. Boys who entered residential institutions at a younger age tended to have higher traumatic symptom scores, whereas only girls who scored high for anxious/ambivalent and avoidant attachment styles aggravated their traumatic symptoms. These results supported previous research findings, and suggested that gender may have an important role in activating the attachment system and in the attachment system's influence on traumatic symptoms in early adolescence.

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The purpose of this study was to investigate negative and positive feelings towards child-rearing, and factors relating to these feelings. Mothers with preschool children in the Tokyo area participated in a questionnaire survey (N=733). Confirmatory factor analysis revealed that mothers' feelings about child-rearing included a sense of being burdened, anxiety, and positive feelings. Three main findings were as follows. (1) The sense of burden of child-rearing was related to the child's age (greater burden from younger children), support from the husband, mothers' working arrangement, and the child's type of preschool (kindergarten vs. day care). (2) Child-rearing anxiety was related to support in the form of information about child-rearing. (3) Positive feelings towards child-rearing was related to support from their husband, preschool teachers, or friends. These results suggest that mothers' sense of burden, anxiety, and positive feelings are related to both common and unique factors.

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Erikson (1968) proposed negative identity as one major aspect of identity diffusion, and suggested three crises that may induce negative identity: 1. identity crisis, 2. Oedipal crisis, and 3. a crisis of trust. This study examined the life of Japanese novelist Junichiro Tanizaki as a case example of negative identity, and revealed the psychodynamic mechanisms of a person who chose a negative identity. Tanizaki was determined to become a novelist, but he remained an unknown writer for some time, and experienced identity diffusion. In addition, Tanizaki 1. had feelings of guilt when he remained faithful to his intention to become a novelist, 2. experienced latent guilt from an Oedipus complex, and 3. remained in a state of profound regression with a sense of guilt about his own existence. These factors brought about in him a change from an essential wholeness to totalism. In effect, negative identity was the only possible way for him to take the initiative in his life as he completely denied any sence of guilt. The concept of negative identity allows us to more fully understand Tanizaki both as a novelist and in his private psychological life.

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The purpose of this study was to understand adolescents in terms of individual-based identity and relatedness-based identity. In Study 1, university students answered a questionnaire regarding their identity. Based on an analysis of these data, a scale was constructed consisting of 15 items related to individuality based identity and 13 items related to relatedness based identity. Differentiation of these two aspects of identity was shown to be difficult. In Study 2, university students completed the questionnaire derived from Study 1, and the scale's validity and reliability were confirmed. A semi-structured interview containing questions related to interpersonal relations was conducted with 20 of the participants from Study 2, to clarify differences between the 4 groups of items formed by cluster analysis. The "KJ" (Kawakita Jiro) Method was used to organize the interview data, and revealed 3-5 categories. The results indicated that in individuality based identity one has little assimilation with others, and seeks wide interpersonal relationships. In contrast, in relatedness based identity one perceives oth ers as independent from oneself and has the ability to from intimate relationships.

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The present study examined changes in maternal behavior in three mother-child dyads. Data were collected by semi-structured interviews of children (all first-borns) ages 21 to 36 months old, and analyzed from the viewpoints of children's problems as recognized by the mothers, and the mothers' framework. When children's negativism and self-assertion became stronger, their mothers tried to control them. However, it was difficult to control children's behavior when children reached their peak of negativism, and the psychological pressure on mothers increased. The synchrony of developmental changes in the children and mothers reduced the psychological pressure on mothers. Although the problems were different in each case, the pattern of change that emerged in mother-child's dyadic systems was similar. These results reflected a reorganization of the system consisting of the mothers' behaviors, thoughts, and feelings.

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This study investigated why middle-aged Japanese men face so many difficulties with unemployment. In-depth individual interviews and a group interview were conducted to examine the experiences of unemployed middle-aged men. The study focused on their connections to companies and society. Based on qualitative analyses, a process model of unemployment was created which consisted of 3 stages: (1) absorption into the company and consequent loss after termination, (2) a succession of alienations from society, and (3) reconnection to society in many areas. These findings suggested four reasons why unemployed middle-aged Japanese men experience difficulties: (1) too much dependence on the company, (2) loss of company life, (3) exclusion and isolation from society, and (4) gradual loss of connection to society occurring in various phases. The study concluded with a discussion of the effects of difficulties due to unemployment on men's later lives.

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The results of a questionnaire survey indicated that the time perspective of people in their 40s was oriented toward the future, whereas people in their 50s were oriented to the present. The relationship between time perspective and mental health indicated the need to maintain a broad time orientation, in order to maintain positive mental health during middle age, The interview data suggested that feelings regarding the past, present, and future differed between people in their 40s, 50s and 60s. These group differences were related to time orientations and to the relations between time perspective and mental health. Finally, the results of this study suggested differences in the quality of acceptance of the past, satisfaction with the present, and goal directedness and hope in each age group.

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This study investigated how younger children come to understand the representational nature of video images and pictures. The validity of a model consisting of three stages (non-representational, transitional, representational) was tested by an experiment. Five- and six-year old children were asked whether the actions of a person appearing on a television screen or in pictures could influence the real world, and whether the image-objects could come out of the television or picture's surface. The latter question was included to verify whether children misunderstood the first question as being asked about the referent in the images. The results showed that children often responded as if they considered images to be real in both picture and video conditions. In fact, children knew the picture was not real, but only misunderstood the question as being asked about the referent. In the case of video-images, children's responses were interpreted as typical of a transitional stage. Children in this stage could distinguish real objects from images but did not fully understand the symbolic nature of the images.

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Recent research on children's developing theory of mind (ToM) has identified the development of executive function (EF) as an essential factor that contributes to children's developing understanding of false belief (Carlson & Moses, 2001; Perner & Lang, 1999). Two particular aspects of EF (conflict inhibition and working memory), contribute to ToM, but no study had shown any relationship between ToM and EF in Japan. The present study examined aspects of EF as related to understanding of false belief in Japanese young children. Seventy children, ages 3 to 6, were given two false belief tasks, a receptive vocabulary task, and six EF tasks. The results showed that working memory was significantly related to ToM, after age and receptive vocabulary were controlled. In addition, there was a strong correlation between conflict inhibition and working memory factors. These findings suggested that conflict inhibition requires a substantial amount of working memory capacity, and that working memory capacity enables young children to operate with multiple representations in one task situation.

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The personnel of an after-school care program (N=102) participated in a questionnaire survey about the need for itinerant consultation for integrated child care. Principal component analysis revealed that needs for itinerant consultation support resulted in five components: (1) coordination with specialized agencies, (2) constitution of care ability, (3) collaboration with parents, (4) care programs associated with handicapped children, and (5) assessment and reporting. In addition, support needs were divided into three major groups in relation to the urgency of needs: (1) fundamental needs, (2) considerable needs, and (3) improvement needs. This research showed that the understanding of support needs in terms of urgency can lead to effective support to prevent problems that occur when service recipients are the overly primary consideration, which is called "needology."

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