This study conducted a cost-benefit analysis on the Motor-Vehicle Regulation in Automobile NOx-PM Law in Japan. As cost, thus, we estimated the economic cost of enforced the early retirement of vehicles from 2004 to 2024. To obtain a robust estimate on the cost, we used the car inspection data. Using the data set, we identify all regulated vehicles and calculated the cost of the early enforced retirement. The total cost imposed by the regulation is about 878 billion yen. In estimating the benefit due to the emission reduction, we used the same data set to identify the emission reduction per vehicle from 2004 to 2024. Then, we put monetary value to the emission reduction. The benefit of the NOx and PM reduction due to the regulation is found to be about 1395 billion yens. The total net benefit, which is used in evaluating validity of policy, is about 512 billion yens at point estimate. Consequently, the Motor-Vehicle Regulation in NOx-PM Law is validated from the viewpoint of cost-benefit analysis.

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Improved understanding of the value of multifunctional environmental services of ecosystems led to the development of the theory of Payments for Environmental Services (PES), which proclaims that the beneficiaries should compensate for the services they receive from forests and other ecosystems. Environmental Taxes for Forestry were introduced as provincial tax in many prefectures of Japan in the 2000s Though their names, purposes, targets and foundations vary depending upon the prefecture, they can be regarded as an environment protection mechanism based on the PES thinking. The fairness of public management of private forests, adequateness of confining the tax payers to those who live in the prefecture, effective and efficient use of revenues, etc, are the common questions raised in the institutionalization process of the taxes. In order to answer these questions, the comprehensive evaluation of the tax schemes is necessary. In particular, the attention should be paid to the issues of the benefit and burden sharing among different stakeholders. This paper analyses the particular features of the Environmental Taxes for Forestry as a scheme of PES. First, the comparative analysis of the schemes in 23 prefectures is conducted focusing on the three central PES elements: payment by beneficiaries, compensation to the service providers, and projects carried by using the tax revenues. Then, public opinions, which were presented at town meetings and opinion surveys, are systematically analyzed in order to explore the major public opinions about the design and enforcement of the scheme. Finally, the specific features of the Environmental Tax for Forestry in Japan as a scheme of PES is summarized. The Environmental Tax for Forestry satisfies several important conditions of PES : it aims at strengthening of forest environmental functions and the payments are made by the beneficiaries. However, it differs from the typical PES models introduced in other countries in that the suppliers of environmental services do not receive direct compensation.

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Extreme consumption of fuel woods as biomass energy has caused global depletion of forest in many developing countries. In focusing on the carbon neutral development, we evaluated reduction potential of carbon dioxide emission by substituting energy crops for fuel woods and fossil fuels based on the plantation scenarios of grass type biomass that could be harvested in one year cycle in developing countries. After estimating energy demand by fuel woods in 2000 and 2030, we investigated the harvested land use scenarios including the substitution of grass type biomass for fuel wood energy consumption. The objective regions were 51 developing countries where forest depletion besides wildfires has been proceeding between 1990 and 2000. On the scenario including crop rotation in the permanent crop land and grass plantation in the arable land, we could confirm the possibility of substitution for fuel wood energy consumption accompanying forest depletion. Furthermore, utmost 18% reduction potential of carbon dioxide emission derived by fossil fuels from developing countries in 2030 was shown by investigating the substitution for fossil fuels consumption by utilizing surplus grass biomass energy after substituting for fuel woods.

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We analyzed the impact of Asian-style development on the environment through nitrogen pollution in Dianchi-Lake in China. Asian-style development has two characters: high population concentration and rapid increase in animal protein consumption . We developed a model that estimate nitrogen load flowing into Dianchi-Lake from variables such as "Population", "Food consumption", "Nitrogen fertilizer usage", and "Livestock number". With the model, we analyzed the factors that increased the amount of nitrogen from 1950 to 2000, and estimated how nitrogen concentration will change until 2050 . The result showed the water pollution of Dianchi-Lake was caused by chemical fertilizer input, the increase of the livestock, and population concentration. Although regulation to the industrial wastewater was conducted in the late 1980' s and the sewerage was improved in 1990' s, the increase of the load has exceeded the reduction by these measures. Recently, per capita nitrogen output due to food intake is not increasing, but further water pollution is forecasted because of increasing population concentration . The water quality of Dianchi-Lake cannot be improved by technological measures such as enhancing sewage disposal and improving the nitrogen use efficiency, unless controlling of population inflow is accompanied.

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