Studies in THE PHILOSOPHY OF RELIGION
Online ISSN : 2424-1865
Print ISSN : 0289-7105
ISSN-L : 0289-7105
Volume 35
Displaying 1-13 of 13 articles from this issue
Neuroscience and the Future of Religion
  • Sadamichi ASHINA
    Article type: Original Article
    2018 Volume 35 Pages 1-12
    Published: March 31, 2018
    Released on J-STAGE: May 11, 2018
    JOURNAL FREE ACCESS

    The purpose of this paper is to rearrange the discussions about what the significance of neuroscience, which is currently rapidly developing, for philosophy of religion has and then to prospect the possibility of neuroscience in relation to philosophy of religion. First of all, our discussion begins after confirming that philosophy of religion understood in this paper includes both philosophy of religious studies and philosophy of religion. The following development of neuroscience is interesting in terms of overcoming the conflict between science and religion. 1. Studies on individual brains remarkable in the neuroscience by the end of the 20th century have shown approaches to the conflict schema between science and religion in the setting of determinism versus free will. 2. On the other hand, social brain research since the beginning of the 21st century shows the possibility of development of a different argument from the conflict schema. This social brain research could be interpreted as responding to the development of the philosophical anthropology of the 20th century and furthermore it provides an opportunity to reconsider the human understanding of Christianity.

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  • Examinations Based on the Neuroscience of Religious Experience
    Takashi OKINAGA
    Article type: Original Article
    2018 Volume 35 Pages 13-27
    Published: March 31, 2018
    Released on J-STAGE: May 11, 2018
    JOURNAL FREE ACCESS

    Neuroscience is almost able to estimate and control our states of consciousness. It is close to controlling even our spiritual pain or fear of death, which has been addressed by religion. This is almost an attempt to repeat the experience of transcendence by using scientific technology. In this paper, we examine where the transcendent dimension will be, as neuroscience develops.

    Then, we examine the views of modern science, which finds fundamentally different qualities in consciousness from those of classical science, whose purpose was to control nature regularly and repeatedly. One of the theories of modern science is neurotheology, which examines the possibility of reality affecting not only consciousness but also brain state. Another is quantum brain theory, which finds experience and will in the quantum state of superposition to which the classical laws of physics cannot apply. Both of these views find reality not only in subjectivity, but also in action and spontaneity, instead of finding reality only in objective material.

    Next, concerning the absence of the transcendent, we examine a religious belief that finds transcendence in our life experiences. As for this thought, the place of transcendence is nothing other than this world presented to us without abstraction, and transcendence to another world is no longer needed. There, spontaneity and purpose acquire their realities again.

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  • Nobutaka INOUE
    Article type: Original Article
    2018 Volume 35 Pages 28-46
    Published: March 31, 2018
    Released on J-STAGE: May 11, 2018
    JOURNAL FREE ACCESS

    Neuroscience and cognitive science have undergone explosive advances since the 1990s, the effects of which have even been felt on religious studies. I will explore here what new perspectives these developments might generate by looking at two specific issues. The first is that of what concepts of kami (deity), imi (taboo) and kegare (pollution) exist in modern Shinto. The second is connected to research concerning the debate over the nature of the founders of new religions and the process by which people adopt those faiths.

    The question of what is distinctive about the kami concept in Shinto can be seen as part of the broader question of what leads the human mind to conceive of gods and deities in the first place. Similarly, such common Shinto ideas as imi and kegare come under the broader topic of why humans establish taboos for certain acts and behaviors. While discussing prior research, I also stress the need to study these new perspectives. Max Weber’s theory of charisma is widely used in discussions regarding the founders of new religions, but I believe that the phenomenon of people becoming entranced with a certain person can be examined from a broader perspective that incorporates neuroscience. The same may be said for the conversion process.

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ARTICLES
  • Takeshi NAIKI
    Article type: Original Article
    2018 Volume 35 Pages 47-60
    Published: March 31, 2018
    Released on J-STAGE: May 11, 2018
    JOURNAL FREE ACCESS

    In der buddhistischen Schule des Reinen Landes ist die Darstellung des „Rinju-Raigo“ (臨終来迎) eine der populärsten. Es handelt sich dabei um das Erscheinen des Amitabha-Buddhas und der ihn begleitenden Bodhisattvas, um einen Sterbenden ins Reine Land zu bringen. Der Mensch begegnet also im Sterben dem „Buddha“, worin der unmittelbarste Ausdruck des religiösen Verhältnisses zum Transzendenten liegt.

    Aber Shinran, der Gründer der Schule des Reinen Landes, legt diese Lehre nicht buchstäblich aus, und hält sie für Buddhas Mittel, uns zur wahren Erlösung zu leiten. Nach seiner Aussage müssen wir von der Zukunftserwartung ihres Erscheinens ins richtige gegenwärtige Verhältnis zum Buddha eintreten. Shinran versucht also, die Lehre von einem grundsätzlich anderen Standpunkt aus zu erfassen.

    Wenn wir jedoch seine Auslegung der Lehre genauer betrachten, erkennen wir, dass er den Ausdruck und die Idee „Rinju-Raigo“ aus seinem Denken nicht ausschließt. Es ist im Gegenteil so, dass diese originär buddhistische Lehre von Buddhas Erscheinen sogar noch eine bestimmte Rolle in Shinran spielt. Es gibt hier in der Tat zwei unterschiedliche Auslegungen von einer traditionellen Darstellung, und beide, die eine als negative und die andere als positive, stehen zu einander in einem Widerspruch. Shinrans Denken ist daher, so die These, eigentlich zweischichtig.

    Die Aufgabe in diesem Aufsatz ist es, beide Auslegungen dieser Lehre gemäß Shinrans Verständnis festzuhalten und dadurch aufzuzeigen, dass sich in der Darstellung des „Rinju-Raigo“ selbst diese widersprüchliche Doppelheit deutlich ausdrückt.

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  • Takaya SUTO
    Article type: Original Article
    2018 Volume 35 Pages 61-74
    Published: March 31, 2018
    Released on J-STAGE: May 11, 2018
    JOURNAL FREE ACCESS

    This article reconfigures Kierkegaard’s thought, focusing on four points revolving around secularization: the worldly, history, Christendom and internalization.

    In the middle of the 19th century Denmark, some people had already begun to transform Christianity into a worldly one. Such move may seem like a practical way to prolong the life of Christianity amid difficulties of having faith in the age of modernization. But Kierkegaard criticized such move based on his dualistic standpoint according to which transcendence and immanence cannot be mediated. Kierkegaard analyzed matters around that time by using the word of “demonic”. The demonic people refuse the good and shut themselves up, not opening themselves to others.

    However, while Kierkegaard witnessed the beginning of secularization, he did not see the process with an adequate time span. For Kierkegaard passed away six years after the secularization in Denmark started in earnest at 1849. Furthermore, Danish secularization was unique in that instead of abolishing Christianity, it was concerned with transforming it into a worldly one and enlarging the freedom of people’s religious lives. Kierkegaard’s “the single individual” was a subject who was not with non-believers but with believers, even if their faith in God was inappropriate in Kierkegaard’s eyes.

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  • essai sur la téléologie et la théologie chez Ravaisson
    Shota YAMAUCHI
    Article type: Original Article
    2018 Volume 35 Pages 75-89
    Published: March 31, 2018
    Released on J-STAGE: May 11, 2018
    JOURNAL FREE ACCESS

    Dans cet essai, nous nous proposons d’élucider le rôle de la « grâce » chez Ravaisson en vue de révéler le sens de sa métaphysique dans sa totalité, notamment la structure de sa téléologie et de sa théologie. La notion de « grâce » a un double sens : d’une part, celui de charme indéfinissable ; d’autre part, celui de don surnaturel que Dieu accorde aux hommes pour leur salut.

    La méthode philosophique de Ravaisson consiste à réfléchir sur la conscience intime du moi et à contempler la nature par analogie. De ce point de vue, on peut saisir la substance de la nature, non par l’analyse, qui la décompose en éléments inférieurs, mais par la synthèse, qui tente d’atteindre la finalité supérieure comme cause. À travers la finalité, beauté de l’harmonie organique, on a la conscience immédiate de la bonté de Dieu. Car le monde a été créé grâce au sacrifice de soi de Dieu, qui est cause de soi : la fin de l’être, c’est le sacrifice divin.

    À travers l’expérience de la grâce, celle de l’ondulation observée dans la nature, ou la ligne du serpentement dont parle Léonard de Vinci. Ravaisson considère que c’est par l’art, notamment par le dessin, que l’on apprend le mieux l’essence de la finalité. Ici, la grâce signifie la réunion de la nature avec Dieu. Si l’on saisit la grâce, c’est pour avoir en moi l’âme du héros qui imite Dieu lui-même.

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  • László Tengelyis Husserl-Darstellung ausgehend von der Auseinandersetzung mit Kant und Cantor
    Masumi NAGASAKA
    Article type: Original Article
    2018 Volume 35 Pages 90-103
    Published: March 31, 2018
    Released on J-STAGE: May 11, 2018
    JOURNAL FREE ACCESS

    Die vorliegende Abhandlung widmet sich dem Vorhaben, László Tengelyis Auslegung der Phänomenologie Husserls als „phänomenologische Metaphysik“ zu erklären. Tengelyi stellt im dritten Teil seines Werkes Welt und Unendlichkeit (2014) dar, dass Husserls Phänomenologie über das Unendliche zugleich eine Affinität und eine Diskrepanz mit Cantors Behandlung des Transfiniten zeigt. Die Affinität liegt darin, dass Cantor, entgegengesetzt zu Kant, in seiner Mathematik das Unendliche als mathematisch durchgängig bestimmbaren Begriff bildet, und dass Husserl, ebenfalls entgegen Kant, in seine Phänomenologie eine Konzeption der Anschauung des Unendlichen einführt. Die Diskrepanz von beiden zeigt sich aber auch, weil Husserl seine Konzeption des Unendlichen als nicht durchgängig bestimmbar darstellt und damit vermeidet, in die ontotheologische Metaphysik zurückzukehren.

    Um Cantors Mengenlehre als eine ontotheologische Metaphysik zu erklären, gehen wir im ersten Abschnitt dieser Abhandlung von Kants Erörterung der ersten Antinomie in der Kritik der reinen Vernunft aus. Im zweiten Abschnitt werden wir sehen, wie Cantor den mathematisch bestimmbaren Begriff des Transfiniten als Aktual-Unendliches bildet und wie dieser sich mit dem, was Kant den transzendentalen Schein genannt hat, überlappt. Im letzten und dritten Abschnitt werden wir erklären, wie Tengelyi anhand der Manuskripte Husserls argumentiert, dass Husserl seinen Begriff des Unendlichen vom Cantor’schen Begriff des Transfiniten differenziert und damit eine nicht in die Ontotheologie hineinfallende Metaphysik – nämlich eine phänomenologische Metaphysik – eröffnet.

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  • On Embodiment
    Ikuo TSUBOKO
    Article type: Original Article
    2018 Volume 35 Pages 104-117
    Published: March 31, 2018
    Released on J-STAGE: May 11, 2018
    JOURNAL FREE ACCESS

    In this article, we explore the point on which Charles Taylor’s two independent arguments converge. The historical account of religion in A Secular Age on the one hand and the philosophical criticism of modern epistemology in Retrieving Realism on the other have in common the insight that the body is essential for us. In A Secular Age, Taylor shows how the work of Reform and its consequent effect of disenchantment have sidelined the bodily, sensual aspects of earlier religious life. He insists on the need to undo this “disenchanting reduction” and rehabilitate the body in religion today. Parallel to this is the deconstruction of the modern epistemology which presupposes the inner-outer distinction, that is, the clear boundary between mind and body, as well as mind and world. Retrieving Realism makes clear that our belief formations are always already conditioned by our bodily, preconceptual engagement with our ordinary surroundings. The inner-outer dualism of modern epistemology needs to be overcome because it leaves no place for this preconceptual level of our perception, or even our embodied existence in general. We can obviously see Taylor’s consistency here. Retrieving the sense of embodiment is a central concern for him both as a historian of religion and as an analytic philosopher.

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