In the present study, a scale was developed to measure "intervention behavior intention", and the reliability and validity of the scale were examined. Fifth and sixth grade pupils (N=202) completed a questionnaire that assessed "intervention behavior intention", prosocial behavior, prosocial goals, self-oriented emotional reactivity, and emotional susceptibility. Exploratory factor analysis and confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the "intervention behavior intention" scale was composed of 21 items with a 4-factor model: assistance, bystander, nonintervention, and "intervention intention". The internal consistency of the scale was examined with Cronbach's α; it had sufficient internal consistency and test-retest reliability, and corresponded to external criteria such as previously developed scales. The girls' scores on the new scale were higher than the boys' scores. The discussion dealt with the availability of the scale for future research on "intervention behavior" in elementary school pupils.

  The present study investigated relations between students' social skills, measured by their teachers' ratings, and the students' satisfaction with school. Students (598 boys, 535 girls; M_age=10.71 years) attending 7 public elementary schools completed questionnaires. Their homeroom teachers (N=41; M_age=36.51 years) rated the students' consideration for others and interpersonal relationship skills. Multilevel structural equation modeling revealed that, although the effect sizes were small, the students' scores on both of these social skills were correlated positively with satisfaction with school. Furthermore, the students' scores on both social skills were correlated positively with a sense of approval. Only their scores on skills of consideration for others were correlated negatively with a sense of victimization. The discussion deals with the benefits and limitations of using teachers' ratings as a measure of their students' social skills.

  The present study examined relations between elementary school teachers' motivation and their pupils' motivation, and the mediating effects of autonomy support. In Study 1, 90 elementary school teachers completed questionnaires designed to obtain data on the relations between their motivation and their perception of autonomy support. Analysis of the data suggested that orientation to approval and comparison was negatively related to the teachers' perception of autonomy support, whereas intrinsic motivation, orientation toward their pupils, and a sense of duty were positively related to the teachers' perception of autonomy support. In Study 2, 35 teachers and 1,097 pupils completed questionnaires designed to obtain data on the relations between the teachers' motivation and their pupils' motivation, and the effects of autonomy support as a mediator. Analysis of the data suggested that the teachers' orientation toward their pupils was positively related to the pupils' intrinsic motivation through autonomy support as perceived by the pupils. Moreover, skill orientation was found to be negatively related to the children's introjected regulation. Positive aspects of the teachers' other-oriented motivation, such as acting for the sake of the children, were also revealed.

  The present study investigated factors that may affect the difficulty of test items that are intended to measure the skill of reading multiple documents. The participants, 151 undergraduates (28 women, 123 men) at several Japanese national universities, were asked to read pairs of passages in English that were on the same topic and answer 10 test items (also in English) about the content of the pairs of passages. The test items were presented in an extended matching format for each pair of passages, requiring the participants to classify the test sentences into one of the following 4 categories: only passage A said that, only passage B said that, both passages said that, and neither passage said that. The 2-parameter logistic constrained model (2PLCM) showed that the test items were more difficult when a test sentence targeted contents mentioned in both passages or in neither of them, compared to the other 2 types. No difference in item difficulty was observed between complementary and contradictory pairs of documents. The present results suggest that such factors should be taken into account when test items are being edited and reviewed.

  Classroom climate impacts various aspects of school education. Even though many previously published studies have considered how classroom environment may promote children's prosocial behavior, the present authors were unable to find studies that focused on children's autonomous and compulsory prosocial behavior. The present research draws on organismic integration theory, examining the relations between classroom social goal structure and children's autonomous prosocial behavior towards their classmates. The participants, fourth- through sixth-graders in 2 elementary schools (329 boys, 328 girls) and seventh- through ninth-graders in 1 lower secondary school (260 boys, 237 girls), completed questionnaires. Multiple-group structural equation modeling demonstrated that a prosocial goal structure was correlated positively with autonomous prosocial behavior, whereas a compliance goal structure was connected to compulsory prosocial behavior. These findings support the validity of having a classroom prosocial goal in order to promote children's autonomous prosocial behavior. Limitations of the study are discussed.

  The present study examined effects of 2 school-based strengths interventions on junior high school students' mental health, as reflected in their life satisfaction and depressive symptoms. In Study 1, which had 128 participants, an intervention for promoting the recognition of and focus on one's own and others' strengths resulted in post-intervention improvements only in life satisfaction. Study 2, with 87 participants, showed that an intervention for promoting the use of one's own strengths in addition to recognizing and focusing on one's own and others' strengths resulted in post-intervention and 1-month follow-up improvements in life satisfaction and decreases in depressive symptoms. The association between changes in the strength variables (strengths knowledge, strengths use, focus on self- and other-strengths) and changes in the students' mental health was examined for the purpose of exploring important components of school-based strengths interventions. The results suggested that the changes observed from pre- to post-intervention in strengths knowledge and in focus on other-strengths were associated positively with the changes observed in life satisfaction from pre- to post-intervention, and that the changes in strengths use from pre- to post-intervention and 1-month follow-up were associated negatively with changes in depressive symptoms from pre- to post-intervention and also in a 1-month follow-up. These results suggest that strengths knowledge and focus on other-strengths may be important for improving life satisfaction, and that strengths use was important for decreasing depressive symptoms. Limitations of the present study and directions for future research are discussed.

  The present study examined mechanisms underlying peers' behavior toward children in their general education classes who are suspected of having autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Teachers (N=95) from 14 elementary schools completed questionnaires about peers' behavior requiring support and peers' alternative behavior. The KJ method (writing the data on cards, organizing the cards into groups, and summarizing those results) was referred to in order to analyze the replies from the teachers (n=35) who taught classes that included children suspected of having autism spectrum disorder and who had reported that those children might suffer because of their peers' behavior. A mechanism of the peers' behavior requiring support was that when the children suspected of having autism spectrum disorder spoke and behaved differently from their peers, their peers teased, warned, and excluded them. After that, either the children quarreled, or the peers enjoyed their activities while excluding the children suspected of having autism spectrum disorder. Mechanisms of the peers' alternative behavior reported by the teachers were that (a) the peers amicably communicated with the children suspected of having autism spectrum disorder when they had something in common to play with or talk about, and (b) when they could work separately on differing interests, the peers did not interact with the children suspected of having autism spectrum disorder. The discussion suggests 4 areas of support that might increase these desirable alternative peer behaviors: increasing the opportunities for all children to play and talk together, preparing the environment so that peers and children suspected of having autism spectrum disorder could work separately on differing interests, observing the interactions of children suspected of having autism spectrum disorder and their peers during breaks, and listening closely to peers' expression of their feelings.