The present study investigated associations between interpersonal relations and motivation for social activity among older Japanese adults, focusing on their peer relations, spousal support, support from their children, and relations with their grandchildren. The participants were 498 older adults living in a community, who were attending social activities. After inappropriate responses were excluded, the data were analyzed from 225 participants (age: M = 75.48, SD = 4.89, range = 60 to 90). The results of partial correlation analysis indicated that peer relations, spousal support, and support from children significantly and positively predicted autonomous motivation for social activity. These results suggest that interpersonal relations, in particular those with peers and family members, may plan an important role in promoting autonomous motivation of older Japanese adults who attend social activities.

  The present research examined how conceptual change may be affected by the 2 aspects of self-efficacy that were proposed by Pintrich, Marx, & Boyle (1993): self-efficacy for accuracy of knowledge and self-efficacy for reconstruction of knowledge. The present study employed 2 types of teaching strategies intended to facilitate conceptual change: (a) a confrontational strategy that presents learners with counter-evidence that conflicts with their prior knowledge, and (b) a conciliatory strategy that presents learners with evidence consistent with their prior knowledge. The participants, junior college and university undergraduate students (N = 135), were given reading material about livestock that used 1 of these 2 strategies. From an analysis of the data, a scale was constructed to assess the 2 aspects of self-efficacy under study. The results from the data analysis were as follows: (a) although the confrontational strategy facilitated more conceptual change, an interaction was observed in which both lower self-efficacy for accuracy of knowledge and higher self-efficacy for reconstruction of knowledge facilitated conceptual change when the confrontational strategy was used, and (b) both types of teaching strategy enhanced both self-efficacy for accuracy of knowledge and self-efficacy for reconstruction of knowledge.

  The results of exploratory factor analyses of some self-evaluation scales often reveal that such scales have 2 method factors: positive (non-reversed wording) and negative (reversed wording). The present study used the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and the Self-Efficacy Scale to examine whether these 2 factors exist generally in any self-evaluation scale, and, if so, how they are related to age differences. The participants were Japanese people (N = 2,830; age range, 15 to 69 years). Study 1 examined a hypothesized model consisting of 1 trait factor of self-esteem and the positive and negative method factors. The prediction of a higher correlation between the positive and negative factors as age increased was supported by the results. Study 2 analyzed the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and the Self-Efficacy Scale simultaneously. The results supported the model, which included 2 trait constructs and 4 method factors, with 1 trait construct and 2 method factors for each of the 2 scales. However, a series of correlational analyses suggested that there may be common method factors in the 2 self-evaluation scales, because the pattern of correlations between narcissism and the positive method factor on the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale was similar to the pattern of correlations between narcissism and the positive method factor on the Self-Efficacy Scale. Additionally, the pattern of correlations between participants' psychological stress responses and the negative method factor on the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale was similar to the pattern on the Self-Efficacy Scale. Moreover, these results suggest that changes due to age in the factor loadings of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale and the Self-Efficacy Scale might be different.

  The present study aimed to clarify characteristics of the feeling of gratitude toward one's mother in the relationship of adolescents and young people with their mothers. The 1,916 participants, including junior high school students (N = 698), high school students (N = 573), and university students (N = 645), completed a questionnaire relating to their gratitude to their mother and their relationship with their mother. Cluster analysis identified the following groups: "feelings of honest gratitude", "feelings of gratitude with conflict", "feelings of gratitude with sorrow", and "feelings of victimization rather than gratitude". Scores on measures of obedience, desire to be together with their mother, engaging in activities together, admiration, consulting their mother only when in trouble, and trying to support their mother were higher in the results from those who had feelings of honest gratitude and those who had feelings of gratitude with sorrow than in the other 2 groups. In addition, the scores on measures of dislike of their mother and recognition of their mother as an individual were highest in the results of those who reported feelings of victimization rather than gratitude. Scores on measures of sympathy toward their mother were highest in the responses of those who had feelings of gratitude with sorrow.

  The present investigator collaborated with volunteer staff members as a participant observer in order to conduct this case study of a preventative support system aimed at re-attendance in classes at a credit-based high school. Observations, conducted 37 times in an open space in the school, included recording communications between the students, teachers, a volunteer coordinator, and other volunteer staff. The role of each supporter was then analyzed. The volunteer staff members were engaged not only in students' learning, but also in the students' relations with teachers, parents, and classmates. In particular, the volunteer staff supported students' friendships. The volunteer coordinator disseminated information about the students' situations and supporters' goals, and also instructed the volunteer staff in how to communicate with the students in their own way. The teachers carefully watched the students' situations and arranged places for the students to stay. The students stayed in the open space in the school with volunteer staff members, and most of them attended classes. Multiple ways for students to be in school were suggested as alternative support for school non-attendees.