To investigate the relationships between content structure of prose and information processing abilities, one group of 61 college students read passages with lots of words explicitly describing conjunctive relations among sentences and some other 61 students read passages with few such words. A memory test, a vocabulary test and an inference test Were administered to measure the relevant abilities. An immediate cued recall, a delayed cued recall and a delayed free recall were measured as dependent variables. Results strongly suggest the existence of a disordinal interaction between passage type and inference ability. That is, a number of connectives stating explicitly conjunctive relations among sentences influenced the understanding and retention of content differentially according to the reader's inference ability. Implications of this aptitude-treatment interaction to education were discussed.

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There were two streams of research in the phonetically symbolic hypothesis: The analystic approach originating with Sapir (1929) investigated the relationship between the vowel sounds and the specific dimensions as large-small in the semantics; the holistic approach appeoning with Tsaru on Frise (1933) tried to clarify that the subjects could guess the meaning of unknown words in non-cognated languages. The purpose of this research was to clarify the relationship betwen the phonetic and the meaning components; the former was extracted from Japanese onomatopoeias on letter-morphemes by multi-variate analyses and the latter by both the SD technique and the association method. This research was based on the re-written phonetically symbolic hypothesis of plato's Theaetetus (201E-202C).
65 Japanese onomatopoeias systematicaly selected (TABLE 1) were used as stimuli, and produced the SD data, the associated nouns, and the associated verbs by a total of 300 subjects. The principal factor and the geomax rotation methods were used. However, the matrix of stimuli X stimuli were introduced by the coefficient of concordance based on the phonetic elements (analysis I), by the linear transformed city block “d” on the 9-SD scales (analysis II), by the coefficient of concordance on the 6803 associated nouns (analysis III), and by the coefficient of concordance on the 6245 associated verbs (analysis IV), The purpose of analysis V was to demonstrate the relationship among the component extracted from the previons 4 analyses by Johnson (1967)'s max method.
The result of the analysis I oppears in TABLE2: the component I-1 related to /n/ and /r/, I-2 to /r/ and /o/, I-3 to /a/ and /k/, I-4 to assimilated sounds, I-5 to /o/, I-6 to /a/, I-7 to /I/, I-8 to /p/, I-9 to /u/, I-10 to /b/, I-11 to /k/, and I-12 to /t/. The result of the analysis II is shown in TABLE 3: the component II-1 related to negative evaluation, II-2 and II-4 to dynamism, and II-3 to fatigue. TABLE 4 shows the result of the analysis III: the component III-1 related to sounds or audition, III-2 to walking, III-3 to water, III-4 to facial expressions, III-5 to anxiety III-6 to fluid, and 111-7 to impatience. The result of the analysis IV oppears as in TABLE 5. The component IV-1 related to activity, IV-2 to anxiety, IV-3 to facial expressions, IV-4 to sounds or audition, IV-5 to negative evaluation or fatigue, IV-6 to fluid, IV-7 to walking, and IV-8 to restlessness. The result of the analysis V is in TABLE 6 and Figure 1. The most robust clusters were {(I-5(/o/), IV-8 (restless-ness)}, {I-7 (/i/), III-7 (impatience)}, and {I-10 (/b/), III-6 (fluid)}. Other significant relations between phonetic and meaning components were I-8 (/p/) to II-2 (dynamism), I-9 (/u/) both to III-5 (anxiety) and III-6 (fluid), and I-12 (/t/) both to III-2 (walking) and IV-8 (restlessness).
The phoneticall symbolisc hypothesis was matching the Japanese onomatopoeias. The symbolic relationship /o/ to restlessness, /i/ to impatience. and /b/ to fluid, and others were newly discoverd. The SD technique resulted only 4 components covered small regions in meaning sphere, but the association method bring much abundant components. And the classical distinction between sound imitation and condition imitation in Japanese onomstopoeias could not be supported.

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The representation of spatial disposition of objects in large scale environment is called image map. Children's image maps were made on the basis of experiences of locomotion. Shemyakin (1962) suggested that they were initially sequential representations associated with tracing routes that was called route-map type (RM type). And as a child grew, the image map was transformed from route-map type to survey-map type (SM type), and was broader so the child could simultaneously represent the whole environment.
The aims of this study were (1) to prove the hypothesis that the image maps of children in the city were transformed from RM type to SM type, according to the indexes in quantity, and (2) to presume reasons for this transformation.
This research took place at the S. Elementary School Unit in Toyonaka city, Osaka prefecture, where streets run disorderly. Subjects were 48 boys and girls ranging from 1st to 4th grade, drawn from those who had lived in the district for more than three years before schooling (FIG. 1, TABLE 1).
Procedures used were (1) map sketch method and (2) verbal description method. Trained interviewers taught children how to draw sketches and encouraged their reproduction.
The contents of sketches were measured by the exactness of represented informations. The indexes were (1) Crossing score (CR),(2) Crossing error (CRE),(3) Number of meshes (M), and (4) Landmark score (LM)((1),(2); the criterion of differentiation,(3); the criterion of structuralization of roadnetwork).
Main results were;
(1) The median of M of 1st grade was zero; M, CR, LM of 1st grade were significantly smaller than those of 2nd grade (FIG. 3, 5, 6).
(2) The coefficients of correlation were significantly found between CR and LM in 2nd grade, and between CR and M in 3rd and 4th grade (TABLE 3).
(3) The difference between 2nd and 3rd grade was found on M significantly, and not on LM by U-test (FIG. 5, 6).
(4) The significant difference between 3rd and 4th grade was found on LM, and not on M by U-test (FIG. 5, 6).
From the results, it could be presumed that 1st grade children had not yet represented routes as a network and they had RM type image map (see Result (1)). And from Result (2), it could be said that 2nd grade children differentiated crossing representations by means of landmarks, on the other hand 3rd and 4th grade children differentiated them by the road-network. Consequently it could be said that 2nd grade children had RM type and 3rd and 4th grade children had SM type image map. It would require further explanation at the point that LM did not increase parallelly with M (Results (3),(4)). The formation of SM type for 3rd grade seemed to fail the correct disposition of landmarks on construction in spite of successful introduction of the road-network. The integration of landmarks and road-network might occur at the 4th grade level.
Reasons of the transformation from RM type to SM type among children's image maps could be presumed as follows:
(1) The accumulation of image maps of RM type had caused partial networks of RM type by the 2nd grade (Result 1).
(2) 3rd grade children had reached the stage of “coordinated” spatial representation. In spite of these conditions complex networks of roads in this district would prevent the transformation.
(3) However the learning of maps in the classroom making it possible for children to survey simultaneously the surrogate, stimulated them to reconstruct image maps of RM type into SM type.

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This study aimed at investigating the developmental study of topographical localization in school children.
The purpose of Experiment I was to examine the effect of perceptual and spatial cues on topographical localization in landscape task. For this purpose, three task were varied as to the degree of cues. Each task required 216 subjects (1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, grades) to observe both position and gaze direction of one doll on unrotated landscape, and then to place the other doll on rotated landscape in the same position as the doll on unrotated landscape, facing the same direction.
The results were: (1), the cues had effect on the acceleration of localization.(2) the degree of acceleration was different in the degrees of cues, age grades, the points of landscape and the kind of localization-(a) position in the correspondent quadrant formed by the intersection of a road and a stream (b) gaze direction of a doll (c) precise position (d) simultaneous consideration on gaze direction and precise position.
These results suggested: that by using remarkable objects as cues, one reference system of one's own body as a reference point to define the position of objects was easily constructed, and the change of reference directions between rotated and unrotated landscape was easily grasped, and the reference system of one's body on unrotated landscape was reconstructed on rotated landscape.
The purpose of Experiment II was to investigate the difference of transformation of relation of topographical position and gaze direction in the landscape task among cognitive formation levels of grasping the change of relation of objects.
The Ss, who could not transform the relation of positions, were 60 school children (6:9-8:7). The Ss were divided into three groups, and trained in accordance with the method of experimental education.
Group C: trained for one day. The Ss defined the position of objects by front-back, right-left relation to one's own body and other person's body at any points.
Group E₂: trained for two days. After the same training as group C, the Ss could transform the relation of positions by concrete acts, in relation to one's own body as measure.
Group E₁: trained for five days. After the same training as Group E₂, the Ss could discover the transformational rule, and used it to transfer the relation of positions.
The results were; group E₁ was better than group E₂, group E₂ was better than group C in landscape task.
Conclusion,(1) it became clear that important variable was as follows: to grasp the change of reference directions by concrete acts, and to reconstruct the reference system of one's body as a reference point to define the position of objects. But these concrete acts had little effect on the acceleration of acquisition of transformation of topographical position and gaze direction.(2) After the concrete acts, using the transfofmational rule had much effect not only on the acceleration of acquisition of transformation of relation of topographical position and gaze direction but also on its retention.

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The purpose of the present experiment was to assess the effect of “dramatized learning materials” on rule learning, in pre-school children. In this experiment, the learning materials consisted of stories in which the facts and rules to be learned were presented. A priori it is believed that the material was dramatised when the facts and rules were presented in the story and they influenced the discovery and conclusion of the story. It was supposed that such learning materials could attract children and facilitate their rule learning.
The experiment consisted of three sessions; a pre-test, an experimental education session, and a post-test. In the experimental education session, we tried to teach children the rule of conservation of weights. 48 pre-school children (5:7-6:9) were divided into 2 equal groups (24 Ss each) on the basis of the pre-test score. In order to teach the rule, we invented dramatized learning material (DT) and non-dramatized learning material (ND) and used them. In both materials, facts and rules of conservation of weights were presented in story form. In the DT material, the facts and rules influenced the discovery and conclusion of the story; but in the ND material, they didn't. Both learning materials contained the same kind and amount of information concerning the facts and rules. In the experimental education session, the DT material was presented to one group (dt-group), and the ND material was presented to the other (nd-group).
The main hypothesis was as follows; the dt-group could show higher score than the nd-group in the post-test. The results supported this hypothesis and also indicated that the DT material was effective for those subjects receiving bad marks in the pre-test.
We may now infer that dramatized learning materials can help learners to make cognitive-frame-works in which facts and rules to be learned can be subsumed.

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The purpose of the present study was to examine the method of teaching, by which middle grade school children could draw and read the orthographic views (third angle projection) with forming actions of projection (P) and construction (C).
On the base of preliminary experiments, the training program of 23 steps consisting of the following 5 blocks was produced.
In the first block of training (step 1-8), children learned to draw the three orthographic views (front, right-side, and top views) of a point inside a three-dimensional-cordinate frame (the projectograph). Afterwards, they learned to construct a point in the frame through reading three views being given as tasks.
In the second block (step 9-11), they learned to draw the three views of a straight line inside the frame, and then learned to construct a straight line in the frame on the three views.
In the third block (step 12-16), they learned to draw the three views of cubes inside the frame, and then learned to construct cubes on the three views of them without the help of frame.
In the fourth block (step 17-21), they learned to transform the isometric drawing into the orthographic views and vice versa.
In the last block of training (step 22-23), they learned to produce and draw the three-dimensional figure image for an object through reading orthographic views of it, and then learned to rotate 90° and 180° to the right or left mentally before drawing it.
Based on performance levels of projection and construction tests for 43 school children in third grade, 8 pairs of matched Ss who had no knowledge of the orthographic projection and had not yet acquired the actions of P and C were selected, and were assigned at random to each of the experimental and control group.
8 children in experimental group (8:1-9:0) were trained individually in accordance with the training program for about three months, but 8 children in control group (8:1-8:11) underwent only the control tests periodically without any training.
As results, the following facts were ascertained:
1) Under the training program, even middle grade school children could acquire the ability of Euclidian spatial representation.
2) Ex. gr. children were able to learn the actions of P and C, necessary for the learning of the technical drawing.
3) Especially, they could acquire the ability of spatial representation enabling mentally the rotation higher of the produced image through reading orthographic views to some directions.
4) But the acquired spatial ability of children by the training program remained at a level influencing partially on the solutions of Piaget's “three mountain tasks” and tasks of the projection of straight lines.
In conclusion, this experiment suggested the high possibility of teaching enabling middle grade school children to draw and read the orthographic views under the condition of an elaborated training program.

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When a person judges whether a simple sentence such as “An S is a P”(S: subject, P: predicate) is true,(1)reaction time (RT) varies directly with category size of P if S is held constant (subset effect) and (2)semantic similarity between S and P speeds up positive decisions and slows down negative decisions (similarity effect). These two phenomena have been pointed out repeatedly in many studies of semantic memory. Traditionally, the experimental material used to examine these effects has almost been limited to universal affirmative propositions (UA's) and there seems to be no prior data as to universal negative propositions (UN's). Since everyday semantic judgements, however, are performed in UN form as frequently as in UA form. UN form cannot be ignored. Hence, the main purpose of the present study was to examine the effects of negation (“not”) on these two widely accepted phenomena using a standard sentence verification task.
The main results were as follows;
1. For both UA and UN, there appeared no evident ordinary subset effect, and reverse subset effect was rather dominant as a whole. These observations were interpreted in terms of the complementary set relations between stimulus categories appearing as P and were also considered from the viewpoint of a model similar to Meyer's two-stage model.
2. It was revealed that there existed the same pattern of ordinary similarity effect in UN as in UA. RT was greater in UN than in UA over the full range of semantic similarity. But the difference in RT between UA and UN was greater when S and P were in disjoint relation than when S was a subset of P. A tentative model which assumed differential amount of cognitive load conditional on dual predictive representations (“isa base” and “isn'ta base”) was proposed to account for this interaction.

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We assume that the levels of subject's comprehension and memory for some story are determined at least in part by the levels of “story schema” formed in his knowledge structure. The aim of this study was to determine whether Frame and Setting informations functioned as a general cognitive framework during comprehending and remembering some story. At this point, Frame information was an advanced information giving the subject a frame of developing a story. Setting information was usually contained in a story and such information that introduced a character of a hero or heroine and a scene or background of the development of a story.
As material, Hans Christan Andersen's “A girl who stepped on a loaf of bread” by TV media was used. Eighty second-grade children were randomly assigned to one of four experimental groups: As an advanced information, FS group received both Frame and Setting informations prior to studying the story, F group received only Frame information, S group only Setting information, and the fourth (control) group received neither Frame nor Setting information. The experiment consisted of four parts:(a) a frame-formation session,(b) story seeing session,(c) an immediate tests ession, in which subjects recognized simple factual questions about each passage and answered passage contents for detailed questions, and (d) a delay comprehension test (one week later) using both questions.
Main results were as follows:
(1) The comprehension scores of S group (Setting-information) were not superior to those of control group.
(2) The comprehension scores of F group (Frame-information) were in accord with those of control group.
(3) The interaction of conditions between structures of story was significant, indicating the comprehension scores of FS group for the beginning and conclusion were superior to those of both S and control groups, but the comprehension scores of four groups in other parts of story did not differ from each other.
From these results, it was suggested that if the frame and setting informations were simultaneously given to the subjects prior to studying the story, they acted sufficiently as a cognitive framework during comprehending and remembering the story.

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[in Japanese]

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[in Japanese]

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[in Japanese]

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