The purpose of the present experiment was to test whether or not the implicit reinforcement effect, recently found by Sechrest (1963) under paired groups, also occurred in competitive classroom situations.
The Ss were 4th, 5th, and 6th grade children, consisting of3classes in each grade.Two of 3 classes were assigned to the experimental groups and the remainig one to the control.All Ss were given additional tasks, such as4+9+8+7, under competitive instructions, for 4 minutes a day in two successive days.Ss in each experimental group were divided into 2 subgroups, equating the 1st day's performance and the number of both sexes.Just before the beginning of, the 2nd day's task, Ss in one subgroup of the lst experimental class were praised (positively reinforced) for their lst day's performances and those of.the 2nd experimental class were reproved (negatively reinforced), while the rest of Ss in two experimental classes were not given any comments on their performances.It seems that Ss who observed the praised or reproved classmates might be reinforced implicitly rather than explicitly.After the task had been finished, introspective reports were collected where responses were made by chosing one of two predetermined statements on the impressions about the verbal reinforcements.
The main results were, as is shown in Tables 1 and 2, that (a) Ss who observed the explicitly reproved classmates (IP group in Table 1) yielded similar results to the explicitly praised Ss (EP group),(b) Ss in IP group performed significan tly better than those who observed the explicitly praised classmates (IN group) did, and (c) a significant grade x type x condition interacion was found, suggesting that implicit reinforcement effect mainly occurred in 6th grade children, while the ex plicit praise was more effective in 4th and 5th graders.From the introspective reports as inTable 3, it was evident that (d) most Ss in IP group wished not to be reproved on the following task, and most Ss in IN group wished to be praised like their classmates.
It was concluded that the implicit reinforcement effect was also found in the classroom situation. Implications of the present results for classroom settings and relationships between the present study and Hurlockian experiments on verbal reinforcements were discussed.

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The latent structure analysis that was originally devised for the measurement of social attitudes can be applied to the study of mental development. Using the latent class model, one of the models of the latent structure analysis, we can hope to find the latent classes or genotypes underlying in a given population or group.Knowing the number and properties of types at several age levels, we can see the differentiation process along with age increment. By analyzing the behavioral data pool gathered from several age levels, we can also hope to find the types corresponding to the critical developmental stages.
This writer has already reported that the data concerning the interests of first, third, and fifth graders of elementary school by inventory was analyzed by the latent class model.It was found that in each grade pupils were divided into two latent classes, where one of the two classes was the masculine type of interest and the other was the feminine type of interest.
This article reports the results that were obtained by analyzing the above data from several different points of view.The data pool obtained from first, third, and fifth graders was analyzed in order to find the interest types that correspond to the critical stages of mental development.Although the subjects and data analyzed here are the same as cited above, it will be repeated.The subjects were 270 pupils attending the elementary school attached to the Hirano Branch of Osaka Gakugei University. The interest inventory that was prepared for this research consisted of about 200 items, and Ss answered them by marking one in the Like-Dislike-Indifferent scale (e.g.In team play, how do you like to be the boss?-L-D-I).Answers were dichotomized before analysis.On the basis of each item's retest reliability (using a point correlation coefficient), with a 20-30 day testing interval, 45 items were selected and analyzed by the the latent class model.
Analysis I.Answers obtained from 270 pupils of the first, third, and fifth grades were analyzed after the general solution of B.F.Green, Jr., with some minor changes.Two latent classes were found: the masculine type of interest and the feminine type of interest but the types corresponding to the critical developmental stages were not found.
Analysis IIA.Data from 160 boys of first, third, and fifth grades which were analyzed.Two latent classes were identified, which were interpreted as the lower grader's masculine type of interest and the higer grader's masculine type of interest.
Analysis IIB.Data from 110 girls of first, third, and fifth grades were analyzed, and two latent classes were also found: The lower grader's feminine type of interest and the higher grader's feminine type of interest.
In addition, some evidence indicates that the “Type I” found in “Analysis I” rather represents the higher grader's masculine type, and that “Type II” found in “Anlysis I” rather represents the lower grader's feminine type.Sc, it may be said that the higher grader's masculine type and the lower grader's feminie type are more fundamental types of interest and the lower grader's masculine type and the upper grader's feminine type are less fundamental. Therefore the two types which were found in “Analysis I” and which were named as masculine and feminine types are considered as a composite of two sub-types.

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The purposes of this study were (a) to consider Jean Piaget's theory on conservation (especially conservation of liquid and weight), and (b) to analyse the role or meaning of nonconservation.
Hypotheses: (1) Even if the child does not exhibit conservation in Piaget's classic experiments, we cannot say that he has no conservation.(If we admit, as Piaget, that the child cannot acquire conservation without logical multiplication or conceptual coordination, we must reject our hypothesis.)
2) Because of perceptual and (other conditions inhibiting the child from exhibiting conservation, the child who has acquired conservation cannot exhibit conservation if conditions change.
Procedure: Our Subjects were 71 primary school pupils (6-9 years old).
1) Piaget's classic ex (periments of conservation
2) Conservation of liquid by usin g screened beakers: Two standard _beakers are partly filled so that the child judges them to contain equal amounts of water.Another beaker which is hidden by a screen except for the top is introduced.The Experimenter pours from a standard beaker into the screened one.Then the child is asked which has more to drink, or do they have the same amount.
(3) Quantification of liquid: Two beakers, A and B (A is wider than B) are partly filled, and two empty beakers (one is identical with B and the other is smaller than A and B in both height and width) are introduced.The child is asked,“Which has more to drink, A or B?”, and informed,“If you want to use these empty beakers, you may use them.”
Results: (a) In comparison with the classic experiment, there is a striking increase in correct equality judgment in the screened experiment.(b) Without a concept of conservation, it is impossible for the child to quantify liquid.(c) The child justifies his correct judgment not by logical multiplication but by noting that “You only poured it” or “Its the same water.” (d) When the child acquires conservation and his concept of conservation is f ixed to some extent, he exhibits nonconservation.
Judging from out results, we cannot explain result (a) and (d) by Piaget's theory.The child discovers essential causality by falling into nonconservation. In this way, he generalizes and develops his concept of conservation, and in this sense, the role of nonconservation is very important for the development of concept of conservation.

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[in Japanese]

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The behavior of a person deviates from the criterion of the group to which he belongs. How far does his behavior deviate from the criterion? It may permit us to meauure his personality. Subjects are presented five stories as problems, five questions on each story, and ten choice items which are identical for one problem.They are instructed to choose one of the choice items on each questions. Ten choice items are divided into two groups.
1) One choice item group is more frequently chosen by the members of the group to which a subject belongs than the other on the question. Supposing that frequency is significantly greater than 50% of total members, the choice item of the other group a subject chooses indicates his response deviating from the criterion.2) The frequency of the choice of one choice item group changes from one question to others.If the choice item a subject chooses does not alter along with that change, then his choices indicate his responses deviating.
There are, however, two objections to the above procedures.a) If the group to which a subject belongs is unhealthy, his response deviating from the criterion of the group may not deviate from the criterion of the present society.b) If a subject obeys the criterion compulsively, he may not be normal.
With the former, two procedures are devised. 1) It is determined whether one choice item group chosen as the criterion of the group are identical with the criterion in other group or not.2) Also the changes of frequencies of one choice item group on questions are inspecited.In the experi ment in this paper several groups were compared and a model group was found among them.
With the latter, supposing normal persons imply more normal ones than so frustrated as to show abnormal fixations, normal persons are chosen by use of other personality tests.In the experiment normal persons were chosen by use of the Group Rorschach Test in the model group.The correlation coefficient between the result of that test and that of the personality test in this paper was, statistically greater thar zero.

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This study was an attempt to investigate the relationship between the behavior patterns of mentally retarded children and their achievement level in arithmetic.The subjects were 18 male moronic children in a special class, who did not have gross neuro-motor symptoms.They were classified into the three main types according to observations of their behavior tendencies in daily life: A type, the basic type without emotional disturbance, B type, the excitable type characterized by hyperactivity and, C type, the inhibited type charecterized by hypoactivity.
Test items were contrived according to the course of arithmetic study (1st grade-3rd grade). Each item was categorized into any of six fields: figure, measurement, addition, subtraction and using method of money.After each item was tested with each S individually, the index of attainment level of each S for each field_??_concerned
We found following results on the equal level of MA and IQ of the three types of children.As to the general attainment level in arithmetic the A type children were highest, and C type children were lowest.
On the items which were resolved by simple mechanical operations, B type Ss attained considerably higher level, than on the ones wich contained reversible thinking processes.
Also, the difference between comparative attainment on mechanical operations and on reversible thinking processes was greater in the B type group than in the C type group.
With respect to MA, we found a significant difference between the MA of 6 and the MA 7.Especially, MA 7children of A type showed the highest attainment level (to the 70% level).

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[in Japanese]

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The purpose of this research is to investigate actual conditions of number education on kindergarten-pupils at homes and in kindergartens, and to analyse the opinions of kindergarten-pupils' par-ents and thier teachers concerning number education.
The subjects are 423 parents of kindergartenpupils and 66 teachers in Sendai.This survey was conducted by a questionnaire method between November 5 and November 25 in 1964.
The results are as follows.;The parents and teachers who are teaching numbers to pupils are about 90 per cent., and 80 per cent.of them, respectively. In case of parents, the childrens' ages when number education was begun are generally between two years old and five years old, and usually mother or father teaches.In the majority of both parents and teachers, systemless methods of teaching based upon the needs, interests and questions of the children are adopted.The contents of the numbers taught at homes are mainly the Mathematical Phase of the numbers, that is, e.g.rote counting, enumeration, reading numbers, writing numbers, addition, subtraction, multiplication and division, etc.On the other hand, the Social Phase of the numbers, that is, e.g.reading clock, discrimination of figures, orientation of objects, tables and graphs, measurement of length and calculation in shopping etc.are dealt with less than the Mathematical Phase.With regard to the necessity of number education in kindergartens, 70 per cent.of parents and 85 per cent.of teachers, feel it is necessary.

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[in Japanese]

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