With the outbreak of the Sino-Japanese war, the Japanese colonial government in Korea attempted to use statecontrolled operation of the colonial economy to allocate its limited resources preferentially to the war effort and warrelated sectors. The land transportation sector, which had occupied only a secondary position in economic activity in peacetime, became a vital influence on the wartime economy. The Korean National Railways(KNR) had to adjust to wide gaps between supply and demand. This was done not only by reinforcing seasonal and geographical regulation of freight traffic, but also by allocating transportation capacity according to state-defined order of priority. General planning of transportation was promoted with the development of the controlled economy and the sudden increase in military transportation from 1941. An ex ante allocation system of transportation capacity through information exchange between KNR and its distribution control association was established. Simultaneously, state control was extended to the terminal sector of rail transportation and controlled mergers of forwarding agencies were promoted. After the outbreak of the Pacific War, the government emphasized relay land transportation of resources from China via the Korean Peninsula to make up for the decline in marine transportation capacity. The colonial government in Korea established a linked land and marine transportation system through an administrative reorganization that included merging the land and port forwarding agencies. Although transportation planning was extended to the China-ManchuriaKorea-Japan traffic stream, integration of the four railways for planning optimization was prevented by the Korean colonial government's objection to the separation of transportation and administration - an objection grounded in the view that planned transportation was indispensable to the operation of a planned economy. Thus, only a limited degree of unification was achieved in the management of relay transportation. There was a clear need for increased state intervention, given market conditions of excess demand and centralized planning of the economy. This greater state control was in fact achieved, but transportation still ended up becoming a bottleneck of the wartime economy, due to resource shortages and poor coordination between the different areas under Japanese control.

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The peasant smallholder, supplementing his income with a side job, has been a characteristic feature of modern rural China. Such peasants have variously been described as typifying "retrogression", "stagnation", or "development" in the framework of the "differentiation of peasantry" model. Today, however, that model is subject to serious doubt. The purpose of this paper is to examine transitions in the Chinese peasantry through a factual area study, focusing on the notion of the peasant smallholder with a side job as a representation of an economic condition of a Chinese peasant. The paper looks at Ding county (定県), Hebei province CRAM, in the early 1930s. At the time, the population of this region was engaged in diverse farming activities, largely determined by the various types of soil in Ding county. Peasants generally practiced single cropping of minor grains and raw cotton while three crops of major grains were taken over a two-year cycle. These cropping systems were accompanied by two types of cotton production : for domestic use in "grain areas", and for sale in "cotton areas". For the former, cotton handicrafts were a relatively unimportant element in the household economy, but for the latter, they were essential. In each household economy, we can witness a visible tendency toward diminution of the acreage devoted to cotton cultivation, in tandem with the commercialization of cotton handicrafts. However, we cannot accept the widely held explanation of the reduction of per-capita cultivated acreage as a simple outcome of population increase. A fuller explanation must take into consideration the peculiarity of commercialized cotton handicrafts, which depended heavily on soil type, and also on cotton-cropping practices and the mode of employment of the male labor force. Thus our investigation draws us to a recognition of the significance of prevalent conditions in each area. This approach will lead us to a view that sees the integration of the peasant economy into commercialized cotton handicrafts as the main factor in diminishing cultivated acreage. An increase in family income resulted from engaging in commercialized cotton handicrafts, giving rise to the institution of "partial inheritance", which in its turn led to the reduction of cultivated acreage. This will adequately explain the socio-economic development of the Chinese peasantry, resulting in the emergence of the peasant smallholder with a side job as a characteristic figure of modern rural China.

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The object of this article is to delineate the rise and development of 'Popular Vehicle' manufacturing in wartime Japan. The study concentrates on the relationship between military plans for popular truck production and the response of Toyota Motor Company to those plans. Toyota was given a chance to produce popular vehicles on a larger scale by Automobile Manufacturing Law in 1936, which limited the production of Ford and General Motors in Japan. Toyota initially aimed to produce low-price vehicles mainly by cutting costs. However, in the wartime economy starting from 1938, military planning forced Toyota to enlarge production capability rather than cut costs and improve quality, which having resulted in over-investment and poor quality of Toyota trucks. To solve the problem, Toyota planned to strengthen work control and increase its self-manufacturing in parts and materials. Nevertheless, the start of the Pacific War in late 1941, allocation of materials to automotive industry was getting worse, and Toyota's plan failed. Although Toyota's mass production method made only limited progress in wartime, mainly due to insufficient supplies of materials and special-purposed machine tools, the method did have some effect in enhancing the efficiency of the military airplane industry.

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