The purpose of this article is to make clear the relation between the European financial control in the Ottoman Empire and the German Bagdad Railway project. The Ottoman Government accumulated foreign debt in the mid-nineteenth century and consequently fell in insolvency in 1875. The British Government actively interfered in the debt problem to protect the interests of British bondholders, who held most of the Turkish loan in Europe. As a result. of joint recommendation by Great Powers at the Congress of Berlin, the Ottoman Government was obliged to promulgate the Decree of Mouharrem in 1881, which decided to cede the various mortgaged revenues, to reopen the service of the debt and to establish P. D. A. (Public Debt Administration), whose Council was constituted by the delegates of European bondholders. In the late nineteenth century, this debt service system began to expose some problems. Firstly, the revenues ceded to P.D.A. couldn't rise so much as expected, because of the opposition of British export industry to the Turkish tariff reform, the conflict with the Russian Government over the Balkan states and the indifference of the Ottoman Government to the tax reform. Secondly, as a result of such limit of the revenues, P.D.A. could pay to bondholders an interest only of 1% and could redeem the bonds only at very low rate, in spite of the fact that the Decree had guaranteed to the bondholders the payment of 4% interest and the redemption at per. As consequent, the British bondholders began to request an increase in the interest rate. Thirdly, the position of the British bondholders was falling for their priority in redemption. On the contrary, that of French and German capital was rising through the investment in public debt and railway construction, which were also guaranteed by P.D.A.. Consequently, between the British bondoholders on the one hand, which intended to get higher rate of interest, and the German finance capital on the other, which projected to construct Bagdad Railway depending upon the Ottoman governmental guarantee system, there appeared a conflict over the Ottoman state finance controled by P.D.A.

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The object of this paper is to examine the significance of the welfare policy, so-called industrial paternalism, adopted by companies in Alsace during the Industrial Revolution. First of all, the central aim of industrial paternalism was to establish a system of reproduction for the labor force which was to be organized through industrial discipline. However, since Alsatian factory workers of the nineteenth century were still characterized by the ethic of <<moral economy>>, the industrialists had to take account of their traditional economic values, while attempting to accomplish their capitalistic ends. Besides, the economic crises, which came about under the government's laissez-faire policy, were aggravated in Alsace because of the large scale of factories, which awoke an acute consciousness in the industrialists about the contradictions of the market economy system. Alsatian industrialists, unlike their counterparts from other regions, allowed the workers to separate completely from the agricultural sector. This was because the stagnation in agriculture brought about a large rural surplus population which could be taken in by the industrial sector. Under such circumstances, Alsatian industrialists came to recognize the necessity of a social policy in the companies, earlier than their business competitors of other regions. Thus, during the Second Empire, when the market economy started its active evolution, and administrative centralization was reinforced by Napoleon III, they promoted a private social welfare system under the principle of non-profit. In this sense, Alsatian industrial paternalism had the function of correcting certain tendancies in the course of evolution of the market economy; it also represents the intention of the industrialists to take responsibility for the welfare of factory workers. Its peculiarity consists in the point that a reform movement departing from the naked force of market principles originated from the industrialist group of leading companies.

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Domestic service has been frequently looked upon as an outlet for surplus labor. If this were true, domestic service would have been deprived of workers as the labor demand of industries increased. Domestic service, however, remained a large occupational group after the beginning of the industrialization of Japan. The purpose of this article is to investigate why domestic servants did not disappear although the labor demand of industries expanded during the economic boom of the First World War. This study is based on the manuscripts of the Hiroumi family, a manure and rice merchant family living in the Sennan District of the Osaka Prefecture. The Hiroumi family always employed three to four resident servants. Most were girls under the control of their parents who ultimately received their daughters' wages. Using personal connections, the employer hired workers from the lower classes living in the neighboring areas. Although the terms of work varied, most retired after a little more than a few years. Parents of the girls had another long-standing alternative of sending their daughters to work as domestic servants. There were many weaving factories throughout the Sennan District which required a large number of female workers. On the eve of the First World War, it was more profitable for parents to send their daughters to the weaving factories than to engage them in domestic service. In fact, the Hiroumi family was faced with a severe labor shortage when the labor demand of the weaving factories rapidly increased in the economic boom of the First World War. The problem, however, was soon resolved as the Hiroumi family immediately took such measures as drastically raising wages. As a result, it was profitable for parents to send their daughters to work as domestic servants. Compared to other regional wage levels, similar changes in domestic service were likely to have occurred elsewhere in Japan. During the economic boom of the First World War, many women remained working as domestic servants because their employers had made great efforts to retain them.

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