The Spanish word adobe, “dried brick”, is a derivative of the Arabic at-tub (tub with the assimilated article at<al). Working on the etymology of this word, I made a preliminary supposition that this word might be a derivative of the Accadian word tuppu, borrowed from the Sumerian dub, “a clay tablet”, because there are many such Arabic words of Accadian and Sumerian origin, introduced into Arabic mainly through some Aramaic language. For example, Arabic fahhar, “pottery, potter's clay, potter”, is from the Accadian pahharu, Sumerian bahar, and so on. But I could not find any parallel to this word in Syrian or other Aramaic languages, and on the other hand, I found a short note by an Egyptologist, Ludlow Bell, that this word descends from the ancient Egyptian djobe (“It may be a Coptic form, but I could not identify it except in the form of tobefound in the smaller dictionary of Ermann and Grapow”). Afterwards I ascertained this etymology by some documents, having found some older forms of this word in the hieroglyphic Egyptian.
As for the Sumerian word for “dried brick”, sig₄, Prof. Mamoru Yoshikawa suggested to me that this ideogram (Labat/Deimel 567) has a reading value of šeb, and thas this value seems to have a non-Sumerian character.
Subsequently I made a new supposition that the ancient Egyptian djobe/db. t could be derived from this šeb through the Sumerian, or directly from this supposed non-Sumerian word, though I have no positive evidence for it at present.
I added to these philological argumets some archeological references on the common characteristic of dried brick in early Mesopotamia and remote Ancient Egypt of the First Dynastic Period, demonstrating Mesopotamian influences on Nilotic Civilization.

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Essenes was a Jewish sect formed in the period from the second century B. C. to the end of the first century. Philo and Josephus wrote about them. The members were obliged not to disclose the secrets of the brotherhood. Then, what was informed of them were all second-hand information by the observers from the outside. They were a group of recluses living on the north-western shore of the Dead Sea. They maintained themselves on manual labor and agriculture. They abstained from making any weapons. They were strictly peace-loving people devoting their lives to the observance of the Torah. Essenes opposed to all attempts to bring about by violence.
Zealots was the name of a Jewish religious party in the period between Herod the Great and the fall of Jerusalem. This party was fanatically banded together agaist all the enemies of Israel to protect the Torah and to secure liberty from the yoke of Rome. And they hated the rich ruling classes and adapted even the means of assassination and robbery. And they resorted to violence.
Essenes and Zealots were Jews and at the same time nationalists. They were easily converted to patriotism when the integrity of the Jewish people were at stake. Essenes coalesced with Zealots and swept into the war, because the both were encouraged by the hope of divine assistance. They conceived of Messiah who would come to bring political independence to Israel.

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I intend to analyse the semantic relation of seven Biblical Hebrew verbs which belong to a semantic field of mental activity, ‘hb, sn’, rsh, hps, rhm (pi), hnn, hml, considering their semantic features, or the conditions that permit the use of these verbs semantically. The main results are as follows.
1) ‘hb and sn’ signify the mental activities of man, while rhm and hnn denote that of God; the other verbs can take either man or God as the subject.
2) rhm and hnn take exclusively man as their object, whereas hps, rsh and hml can take other objects also; particularly hps governs some ethical terms, hml governs animal or some concrete things.
3) The verbs other than ‘hb and sn’ relate the mental activities of man or God to his subordinate.
4) As for rsh there seems to be a premise that its object does something active to its subject; but the other verbs can be used only if their object exists, with or without the mention of its attribute.
5) On the other hand, the mental activities denoted by the verbs except rsh do not remain psychic, but intend to bring about some concrete result on the part of their objects.
6) The semantic relation of ‘hb and sn’ is not ‘antonymous’, but ‘complementary’; that is, in Biblical Hebrew “not to love” means “to hate”.

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Having refuted many opinions thus far proposed about the meaning of ‘Avesta’, I have explained NP. Avesta, MP. Apastak/Abestag from OIr. *apa-sta-ka- to *apa-sta- ‘keep away from, reject’, hence ‘Avesta’ connotes ‘what keeps away from, what rejects’. What then does It keep away from or reject? From the Denkard ed. M. J. Dresden 473_4-14=ed. D. M. Madan 459_8-22, we can safely say that the Avesta is so called because It rejects our human comprehension, therefore ‘Avesta’ means ‘Profound Text’. Although derived from the same base *apa-sta-, Sogd. 'pšt'w'nh/'pšt'wn=apštawan connotes ‘Holy or Sublime Word’ (<‘what keeps away from’) and 'pšty'm=apštayam ‘I abandon’. For further details, see my “Gathica XII. On the meaning of ‘Avesta’”, Orient, Vol. 9, Tokyo 1973.

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In the first half of the 12th century, the Fâtimid dynasty in Egypt hastily changed her course on the decline through the domestic discords and the invasion of the crusades, but we have few historical materials on that period and it is not elucidated sufficiently yet.
Usâma ibn Munqidh (1095-1188) was an eminent warrior and man of letters, paticularly a poet, keeping friendly relations with Caliphs, Wazîrs, Amîrs and Francs in Syria, Egypt in those days. His memoirs, kitâb al-I'tibâr, give us valuable sources in elucidating this age.
By his memoirs, we can see many phases of Arabic society itself and those of military and cultual contacts between the Islamic world and Europe in those days, such as the living forms of Syrian amîrs and their civic life including hawking and methods of medical treatment, various forms of war and diplomacy, and the hasty changes of conflicting interests at home and abroad among Arabic powers, Frankish powers and the Byzantine empire.

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In the summer and f all of 1970, Tokyo University Scientific Expedition carried out a geographical survey of two villages in Afghanistan, of which the author was a member. The first village is a Tajik village named Kababian which is located to the east of Herat. The second one is a Pashtun village in Logar Province called Piaru-khel.
In this monograph the author intends to give a general information on the culture and language of Kababian village. There the inhabitants are the Sunni Muslims, and speak Persian exclusively. Several Khwaja families are also found in the village, having no prestige originally implied in the title. Most of the villagers are farmers on the land irrigated by Hari-Rud, and a few people go to Herat to work at offices. All of them are enthusiastic or sometimes even fanatic in believing in God and observing religious obligations.
Their colloquial Persian has little affinity with the Persian current in Iran, although Herat region was a part of Khurasan where Islamic and Iranian civilization once flourished. New Year's celebrations are quite Afghan. The people have no such elaborate and sophisticated programs as seen in Iran.

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Unter den Königen von Ur-III Königtum (22.-21. Jahrhundert vor Chr.) war eine Stadt namens Selluš-Dagan (Drehem) das Haustiereverwaltungszentrum, das religiöse Stadt Nippur mit vielen, von einzelnen Personen des Reichs nach dieser Einrichtung eingebrachten Tieren (mu-tù) versorgte.
Aus dieser Stadt stammende Urkunden teilen mu-tù in vier Gruppen; ein von ihnen hieß mu-tù-lugal, ein sumerisches Fachwort, das Sumerologe verschiedentlich verstehen. Meiner Meinung nach soll es bedeuten nicht, was der Herrscher brachte, sondern etwas für ihn Eingebrachtes. Die mu-tù-lugal- Urkunden zeigen uns zwei folgende Typen: (1) einerseits den Typ, wo ein zeitlich bestimmter Beamter die für den königlichen Gebrauch von einzelnen Leuten gelieferten Tiere empfing, und (2) anderseits den Typ, wo er Tiere an den auderen niedrig-stehenden Beamten der Königliche Forderung entsprechend verteilte.
In den beiden Fällen waren die Beamter, die Empfänger und Lieferanten der Tiere, Naša (während der letzten Regierungsjahre Königs Šulgi), Abbašaga (in der Zeit von Amarsin hindurch; als Empfänger sowie Lieferant) und Intaea (einmal schon früh im siebten Jahr Amarsins, aber hauptsächlich unter den Herrschern Šusin und Ibbisin; fast immer als Empfänger). Ein anderer Mann, dessen Name Naramili war, hatte einen besonderen nicht einfach bestimmten Status gegen Naša und Abbašaga. Seine Aktivität ausschließlich als Lieferant der eingebrachten Tiere dauerte 24 Jahren lang vom 28. Regierungsjahre Šulgis bis Amarsins dritte Jahr, also arbeitete er als der Untergeordnete von beiden Chéfs.
Seit dem Anfang der Herrschaft von Šusin schien der mu-tù- Wesen allgemein sich zu verändern, weil sich die diesbezüglichen Urkunden jährlich verminderten, während dementsprechend die von mu-tù-lugal mehr und mehr geschrieben wurden.
Die von den hohen Beamten des Ur-III-Reichs als mu-tù-lugal eingebrachten Tiere bestanden aus maš-da-ri-a (Opfergaben), nam-ra-aka (Beute), einem Teil von mu-tù und mu-tù-lugal an sich und ein Teil davon wurde manchmal für Personen (vielleicht Angehörige der königlichen Familie und Gendarmen) und Weihgeschenk (a-ru-a) verbraucht. Aber gleichzeitig geben uns einige mu-tù-lugal-Urkunden die klaren Beispiele dafür, daß man Tiere auch für bala (Amtszeit, wo die hohen Beamten wie Stadtfürsten nach der Reihenfolge verschiedene Obliegenheiten erfüllten) verbrauchte. Die perfekte oder fast perfekte Übereinstimmung des bala-Monats eines Stadtfürsten mit dem Monat, in dem er Tiere bekam, wissen wir leider nur wenig. Trotzdem, weiter, die Tatsache, daß er Tiere kurz vor oder nach seinem bala-Monat empfing, gibt uns genug den Grund der Vermutung, daß das Hauptziel der mu-tù-lugal- Wesens die Versorgung der Opfertiere während seines bala gewesen sei.

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