This experimental study investigates the effects of failure on task performance and achievement motivation of 34 physically disabled (poliomyelitis) adults and 36 able-bodied adults. Subjects were assigned to three groups according to the level of task difficulty (experiential condition)-that is, a complex problem solving group, a simple problem solving group and a control group. Results show significant differences between the disabled and able-bodied groups. In comparison with the non-disabled group, the disabled demonstrate a lower rate of improvement in task performance. However, while they show greater achievement motivation and attention to task despite failure, at the same time they demonstrate increased levels of subjective feelings of helplessness as performance level decreases. Further, the findings suggest that as task performance improves, disabled adults report relatively lower levels of satisfaction in comparison with non-disabled adults.

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This paper is aimed at clarifying Vygotsky's theory on pedology and the problematic issue of children with learning difficulties. It traces developments in the USSR from the mid-1920s when the 1st Congress of Pedology created a new climate for the promotion of pedological studies. This entailed the establishment of a Section for Difficult Children dealing with handicapped, "pedagogically neglected", neurotic and psychiatric children, and also, within the People's Commissariat for Public Education, a Committee for the Project of Pedology of which Vygotsky was a member. Vygotsky defined pedology as a science of the unified totality of childhood and was the prime exponent of the Pedology of Difficult Childhood. He believed the development of this field of study as an independent science required the establishment of a systematic research methodology based on developmental diagnosis and clinical work. While Vygotsky's influence on pedology was widespread in the USSR, his teaching methods and the ideological basis of his theory of cultural development were criticized by the Central Committee of the Soviet Communist Party in the summer of 1931. Vygotsky died soon after in 1934 and his theories and, in particular, the concept of 'difficult childhood' have remained largely unrecognized. Nevertheless, Vygotsky's work is significant, having relevance to contemporary research in the teaching theory and practice with disabled children.

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This study investigates the features of the orienting-search response in severely and profoundly handicapped children by analyzing behavioural reactions and heart rate (HR). The subjects included 27 infants of normal intelligence (mean CA=1:1), and 22 severely and profoundly handicapped children (mean CA=14:2; DA=0:9). Seven stimuli were used in the study-a vibrator, a pure tone, a flashing light, music, the calling of the subject's name, a toy police patrol car, and an approaching stranger. The responses to these varying stimuli were analyzed for orienting-searching behaviour and HR variation was established by the measurement of the R-R interval. Results indicate a relationship between the orienting-search response and HR reaction. This was found to be less signification in severely and profoundly handicapped children than in normal infants, particularly when the stimulus was presented in the first trial or in the first stage of the experiment. However, no differences between groups were observed in the frequency of responses and the percentage of responses observed following the first trial. Further, severely and profoundly handicapped children (CA=24 weeks) as a group were delayed in exhibiting the HR reaction, but on an individual basis it was possible to elicit a response. This suggests these infants are receptive to stimuli, but that this response is delayed and variable. For example, it was found that severely and profoundly handicapped children are more receptive to auditory stimuli than non-disabled controls. Finally, the nature of the subject's response to novel stimuli (toy police patrol car) and familiar stimuli (calling the subject's name) suggest the presence of secondary attention behaviour which we describe as the searching response.

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This study analyzes the relationship between temperature variation and hemophilic Intra-articular bleeding in two hemophilic adolescents. The results suggest that the highest rate of Intra-articular bleeding occurs during the months of April and June, and that abrupt temperature variation occures one to two days before the onset of bleeding in the ingravescent period coinciding with an increse in bleeding in special joints. Further, results indicate that the effect of temperature variation on hemophilic bleeding depends on the severity of ingravesence in the articulars. These findings are discussed from the perspective of the motor-action system.

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A two-stage experiment was performed with eight profoundly retarded persons to analyze the expectancy response. In the first part of the experiment, the subject was seated behind a screen 150cm from an observer (care-giver). The observer's face was exposed for 15 seconds. Auditory involvement followed this visual presentation, that is, the subject's name was spoken. In addition, a subject's toy was used on occasions to elicit a response. Responses were video-recorded (VTR) with specific periods of fixation on the target (observer's face) being superimposed (electronically) on the temporal record by the observer. The second stage involved the observer's face (college student) being exposed in a window frame 120cm from the subject for a period of two seconds (S1) immediately following an auditory stimulus (chime). This was followed by the immediate withdrawal of the visual stimulus for a period of 3 seconds (S1-S2 interval), and the observer revealing himself to the subject (with toys and calling the subject's name) from behind the screen (S2). Slow potential variations in brain (contingent negative variation, CNV) during this experiment were recorded, and any below baseline behaviour was analyzed. Results show that responses can be grouped according to the nature of the expectancy response. Group 1 subjects show both facial fixation and an emotional response immediately prior to the presentation of stimlui. Further, the probability of both responses increases following presentation of the stimuli. Group 2 persons are those subjects who have increased probability of an emotional response following presentation of stimuli. Both types of response following stimuli presentation can be found in Group 3. It is suggested that this three-group classification of responses corresponds with the developmental stage of early communication; the active, emotionally active, and passive stages. Result also show that CNV during the S1-S2 interval occurred in 2 subjects in Group 1 indicating that the expectancy response occures with anticipation and preparation of motor performance. Further, findings suggest that slow potential variation can be observed in a person with weak responsive behaviour, and that the method of slow potential recording can be used to evaluate the communication of such individuals.

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The reading of hearing impaired children has been neither adequately evaluated nor fully understood although it is commonly accepted that hearing impaired children seldom achieve reading proficiency above a fourth grade reading level. However, little is known of the strategies used by hearing impaired children who have been trained orally and the degree of proficiency they might exhibit when given whole stories to read independently. This study examines selected processes and comprehension of whole story reading by orally trained children with hearing impairment in comparison with normal hearing children. Subjects were 35 hearing impaired children in grades four, six and eight and 20 hearing children in grades four and six. Groups were matched on the basis of IQ standard deviations (40-70). Comprehension of the total story was evaluated by miscue analysis. Retelling suggests that comprehension is positively correlated with the qualities of miscues while the frequency of miscues disturbs the level of comprehension in oral story reading. Further, in word processing, hearing impaired children use both graphic symbols and grammatical structure, but sound cues are inadequately used in comparison with hearing children. In addition, in sentence processing, while hearing impaired children make relatively inadequate use of syntactic cues, use of semantic cues is appropriate. Further, no significant difference exists between hearing impaired and normal hearing children in processing of context and rate of story retelling, but differences in comprehension where hearing impaired children were developmentally delayed in processing of story plot and theme were observed. These findings suggest that while orally-trained hearing impaired children show minor delay in some areas of processing written material, they do comprehend stories by using multiple omission miscues. That is, they engage in more guessing during the reading process than do normal hearing children.

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This study analyzes the development of the orienting response to visual and auditory stimuli in normal and Down Syndrome neonates (1-36 days). Nine normal and five Down Syndrome neonates were tested in hospital or home each two to six days during the first 36 days following birth. Visual (penlight) and auditory stimuli (buzzer) were presented five times on the eyes and to the auditory meatus. Findings suggest that in normal neonates (0-28 days), three developmental stages of the orienting response can be identified in normal neonates in comparison with one period (1-7 days) being observed in Down Syndrome neonates of the same age. The study's findings enable these periods to be categorized as the development of the defensive reflex, the development of the orienting response (14-21 days), and the maturation of the orienting response (21-28 days).

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Numerous studies reporting on the effectiveness of educational integration in the Japanese school system have been recently published. This paper reviews the methodology used in this field of research with emphasis on teacher attitudes towards the integration of disabled children in ordinary classrooms. Specifically, it discusses the methodologies from the perspective of the guidance procedure of educational integration used in Japan during the past two decades. It examines influence of guidance on the lifestyle and learning environment of mentally retarded children, the integration of special and normal classes in major school activities, and the interaction between disabled and normal children, and developmentally delayed and normal children in ordinary classroom settings. These issues are discussed in terms of developmental stages of childhood, the promotion of leadership within the class, factors enhancing the process of educational integration, the cooperation of teachers in integrating disabled children, and teaching methodology for integration.

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[in Japanese]

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