In order to analyze the influence of criticism of teaching upon instructional design, the present article focuses on the following points: (1) analyzing the influence of criticism upon teachers' attitudes toward teaching, and (2) analyzing the influence of teachers' attitudes upon their instructional design. The main results were as follows: (1) when the content of the criticism agreed with problems that the teacher was trying to solve, criticism had a large influence on the next instructional design, but (2) if the criticism was not concrete or based on the facts in teaching, no influence of criticism upon instructional design was found. (3) Only concrete criticism based on the facts in teaching improves methods of teaching children with severe multiple disabilities.

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The purpose of the present study was to elucidate the developmental process of a woman with profound mental and physical disabilities, from her birth to when she was 32 years of age. The results were as follows: Her developmental quotient (D.Q.) decreased from 16.00 when she was 3.5 months of age to 1.10 at 28 years of age, but increased again to 1.58 at 32 years of age. In contrast, her developmental age (D.A.) improved from 0.5 months at 3.5 months of age to 5.9 months at 32 years of age. Of paticular interest is that between when she was 28 and when she was 32 years old, the developmental age of her exploratory activity, response, and movement increased from 3.9 months to 6.0 months. Although the woman has profound mental and physical disabilities, she has, nevertheless, reached the age of 32 years with an unexpected degree of development. As a result, it is very difficult to conclude why other people with similar disabilities do not develop mentally and physically in this way.

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In order for children to develop a concept of direction, it seems necessary for them to act. Children with cerebral palsy who are more restricted in their motor development than children without disabilities should have difficulty in acquiring the concept of direction. The purpose of the present study was to examine the effect of action on the development of the concept of direction in children and youths with cerebral palsy. Subjects were 55 children and youths with cerebral palsy from 4 to 22 years old. They were rated on action with the items of the movable level and Dohsa level. Other characteristics of the subjects that were measured included age, sex, speech impediment, and level of intelligence. In the first task, the subjects were required to use their finger to indicate 6 directions (up, down, right, left, forward, and back) in the following 3 conditions: the direction that they were facing while in a sitting posture (Condition 1-A); the direction of a doll that stood face to face with the subject (Condition 2-A); and the direction of a doll that stood facing the same way as the subject (Condition 3-A). In the second task, the subjects were required to indicate 4 directions (up, down, right, left) in the following 3 conditions: the direction that they were facing while lying on the floor (Condition 1-B); the direction of a doll that lay on a table with its feet toward the subject (Condition 2-B); and the direction of a doll that lay on the table with its head toward the subject (Condition 3-B). The results showed that age, Dohsa level, and intelligence level affected the development of the concept of direction. When the scores on each item were analyzed, it was found that the 4- to 6-year-old children (Group A1) scored lower than the 10-to 12-year-old children (Group A3), the 13- to 15-year-old youths (Group A4), and the 18- to 20-year-old youths (Group A6). The Dohsa level of the subject-sitting condition (Condition 1-A) and doll-standing conditions (Conditions 2-A and 3-A) showed that the subjects who were bedridden scored lower than those who were able to stand and to walk. Those scoring in the normal range on intelligence had higher scores than those scoring low on intelligence measure. It was also showed that scores on the tasks that requires subjects to indicate directions relative to themselves were higher than scores on the tasks that required them to indicate directions with respect to the doll. The discussion suggested that development of the concept of direction is facilitated by means of a multiplier effect of the length of living experiences and the actions by which children and youth with cerebral palsy actively intend to effect their environment through their body mevements.

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Recently there has been an increasing tendency in Japan to recognize the existence of children with learning disabilities and to categorize them in the educational system; in addition, administrative authorities have started to investigate more concrete treatments for such children. In order to make this trial successful, however, one of the most urgent tasks is to establish a definition of and criteria for learning disabilities that are agreed on among the parties concerned in Japan. The present article surveys changes in the definition of learning disabilities in the U.S., where a special educational service for children with learning disabilities has been offered since 1975; accompanying issues and difficulties are outlined. Through this survey, future issues in Japan should become clarified. The results were as follows: (1) Even in the U.S., where several improvements in the definition of learning disabilities have been attempted, a general consensus has not yet been obtained on the present definition. (2) Cases of children with learning disabilities where the mechanism overlaps attention deficit-hyperactivity disorder should be studied so as to make a strict distinction between them. (3) Appropriate methods and procedures for measuring aptitude and achievement should be developed. (4) Research should be conducted on learning disabilities based on a strict definition and criteria for learning disabilities, and plans should be designed that offer suitable educational aids for all those who have trouble with learning.

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