Recently, "postmodern" debates, such as "empowerment", "advocacy" or "narrative approach", have been popular among the studies of social work theory and practice. In these debates, we can find a common insight that regards social work theory as a "discourse". We, however, have not asked, what is "modern" for social work? And is social work a discourse? This paper explored as to why the "postmodern arguments" inevitably appear in social work theory. I focused on the implication of "modernity" on social work by analysing the professionalization process of social workers in the beginning of the 20th century. I also examined the relationship between social workers and clients, using the concept of "the other" presented by Spivak. The final purpose of this paper is to present a perspective of "self-reflection" in social work.

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The purpose of this essay is to examine White and his colleague's empowerment theory based on the "power/knowledge" concept ofFoucault, and to show the new social constructive framework for social work practice. We critically analyed their procedure to put "power /knowledge" into practice and pointed out logical problems about the method of the transformation of this concept. Then we adopted CMM theory to explain transactions of various levels of meanings from concrete communications to abstract discourses. Based on this framework, we showed the example of intervention in the maladaptational interaction patterns. These rigid patterns in a family always contain cracks that operate as a prelude to a change and deepen family identity crisis. When a client tries to open up these cracks to solve his painful relationship, we have to support this movement. This system of the theory and technique to open up cracks in a system, is the new method of social work we propose.

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This paper aims to cope with accumulation of Conflict and Dilemma of social workers, in order to prevent workers' from being burnout. Based on earlier literatures we determined that the factor behind accumulation of Conflict and Dilemma is the distance between "self-consciousness of professional identity" and "self-consciousness of real supporting", and upon this presumption some models were constructed. Following suggestions were made to prevent accumulation of Conflict and Dilemma ; (1)improvement of workers' "self-consciousness of real supporting", (2)stability of workers' "self-consciousness of professional identity", (3)correction of workers' "self-consciousness of professional identity", etc. We also verified effects of these measures by simulations. As a result, it was concluded that measures taken with a view to reducing the distance between "self-consciousness of professional identity" and "self-consciousness of real supporting" would be effective in preventing accumulation of Conflict and Dilemma. It would be useful if "self-consciousness of professional identity" and "self-consciousness of real supporting" are assessed, and distance between these two is examined.

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The purpose of this paper is to consider the meaning of "the becoming" in Tsubogami Hirosh's social work relationship theory in order to reconsider the nature of social work. In particular, this research did the examination of "spiral's social work relationship" of Tsubogami's main concept. In concluding, it was found through the examination that the meaning of "the becoming" means the change of the method of awareness. That is to say, social workers become aware of "the interests" that they usually are not aware, and they review "the interests" in themselves, and accordingly, the method of awareness changes. The relationship that causes "the change" in social worker is the "spiral's social work relationship" where by the social workers review their interests through client's one.

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Today, the problem of ill-treatment in the welfare institutions is coming to the surface and is getting worse. To study the factors behind the ill-treatment, this paper focuses on the state of the organization or the group to which care workers belong. In the welfare institutions, a care worker is vastly influenced by its environment while working as a member of the staff organization or group, and this seems to lead the care worker indulge in the act that is contrary to the professional ethics. Firstly, this paper makes clear such social and psychological factors behind the ill-treatment through the study of phenomenon of 'obedience', 'siding', and 'internalization' which care workers experience in the staff organization or group. Secondly, it focuses on th 'frailty' of the care worker who is likely to be influenced by such circumstantial pressure, and considers how to overcome the frailty. Care workers need to have the 'strength' to realize the professional responsibility for the human rights and daily life of clients in the institutions. Such strength is likely to be obtained by admitting one's frailty as a human being and by facing it.

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A total of 656 cities in Japan were classified according to population, housing conditions and economic factors, and the correlations between the characteristics of the area for each of these classified cities and the availability of child-care support facilities and childcare services were investigated. The results of the analysis showed the main characteristics of the cities as "community activation scale," "degree of urbanization," "industry" and "growth." On the basis of these four characteristics, the 656 cities were divided into the following 11 groups : "regional small-scale cities," "regional high-growth cities," "cities forming a large commercial area," "sub-satellite cities of a metropolis," "regional key cities," "satellite cities of a metropolis," "non-growth cities," "average regional cities," "growth-type regional industrial cities," "tourism-type regional cities", and "regional industrial cities." The results of analysis revealed that there were significant differences between these 11 groups in terms of ; 1) the nursery staff sufficiency rate (ratio of the number of nursery staff to the number of preschool children) , 2) nursery admission waiting rate (ratio of the number of children aged 0-2 years waiting for acceptance of application for admission to nurseries to the number of children in that age range attending nurseries) , and 3) the percentage of nurseries offering extended-hours service. However, no significant intergroup difference in the percentage of nurseries offering temporary care service was found. The results showed that differences in the characteristics of the area in Japan in which a city is located are responsible for differences in the availability of child-care support facilities and child-care support services.

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There is a growing controversy at policy level that more policies to support family rearing children should be constructed. This study is based on the idea that the family model envisioned by policy makers has important influence on policy contents and framework. The purpose of this study is to abstract the family model that was envisioned by policy makers through exploring the Japanese One Parent Allowance System as one of the policies that were legislated to support the family rearing children. For this purpose, I compared the Japanese One Parent Allowance System with foreign systems and grasped its features, as well as did an analysis of the family model assumed in this system on the basis of its features. Through this analysis, we can find that this Allowance system assumes the modern nuclear family model as desired and appropriate family, and this system targets the family that does not conform to this family model. Moreover, I studied the problems brought about by this family model and its potential functions as well as the implication that Japan does not have the system to enforce child support on the divorced parent.

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There are several types of employment policies for disabled people in the world. Previous studies have reported specific aspects of policies and programs designed to promote employment of the disabled, however a broad overview of such policies is absent. This study aims to compare employment policies for disabled people in seven advanced countries from various angles, and seeks to generalize and theorize them. Firstly, paying attention to important measures, policies are classified into three types. Type I adopts anti-discrimination legislation to guarantee equal opportunity. Type II uses quota schemes to obligate employers to employ certain ratios of disabled people. Type III prefers to directly provide sheltered work for disabled people. Secondly, distinctive features of each type are specified from the following angles : (1) ideal methods of employment, for disabled people (2) principles of policy. Finally, based on these analysis, advantages and disadvantages of each type of policy are theoretically discussed, and new policy directions for the future are presented.

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The concept of "Deaf culture " is presented on the basis of properties of Japanese sign language which is used by deaf people. When we consider this "Deaf culture declaration" as an explanation of disabled culture, we find that an explanation of disabled identity is also implicit within it. There are 4 ways of gaining identity as a disabled person; 1. by hiding ones disability, 2. by gaining some form of valued identity, 3. by denial of the qualities valued by the society of normal people and 4. by rearrangement of the values of that society. It is appropriate to consider the concept of "Deaf culture" through Japanese sign language which is used by the hearing disabled, people as a manifestation of No.4 item, that is, Rearrangement of the values of the culture of normal people's society. The concept of "Disabled culture" also functions to label relationships between the disabled and normal people. This labeling function supplements the "acknowledgement of mutual roles" and "mutual supprot" in the concept of normalization through rearrangement of the values of normal people. Disabled culture exists for the disabled themselves to gain a sense of identity through rearrangement of values, however, for society as a whole,disabled culture means that the disabled are asking normal people to accept the differences between them. If we consider the disabled culture as mentioned above, it is possible to envisage Peer Counseling as playing a role as a device used to share disabled culture between people concerned, and also to envisage independent living centers or regional work stations (cooperative work stations) managed and used by the disabled or disabled groups as a device for the furtherance of their own culture.

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In this study, I considered what kind of conditions and policies are necessary for the realization of a service plan in the case of nursing care homes for senior citizens. I carried out a questionnaire for the nursing care homes for senior citizens, and received 822 answers from 155 facilities in Japan. I extracted 28 items from five categories as a condition or a policy for the execution of a service plan. I based my analysis using the K. Krippendorffs method. In order to realize a service plan, it is necessary to associate these items of the categories to one another and put them into practice. It is also important to create the conditions in which each member of the staff has confidence to realize their service plan and has the will and sense of duty to improve their plan.

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'Payment for care' has to be discussed in terms of 'consumer-directed' model and gender. This paper reviews the arguments offered by supporters as well as by critics, and discusses the United States' case. The case shows that we should carefully consider at least four issues when a 'payment for care' program is publicly introduced as 'consumer-directed' model: 1) underpayment for care in informal sector; 2) relationships between consumer safety and his/her power and choices; 3) chances to improve the disadvantageous conditions of caregivers; 4) chances for organizational negotiations among consumers, caregivers and government. These issues imply that greater emphasis should be put on government responsibilities, as prerequisites, in covering program cost, confirming consumer safety, and ensuring caregiver rights. To advance the program once publicly introduced, it would be crucial that consumers and caregivers have chances to collaborate and to negotiate with government at the organizational level.

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This study examined loneliness of elderly people living at home and related factors. The data was obtained through the questionnaire distributed to 494 (220 males, 274 females) elderly people living at home. Main findings were as follows: 1) The means and standard deviations for loneliness scores were 22.16 ± 3.51 points in case of males and 22.73 ± 4.26 points in case of females. 1) As the result of multiple regression analysis, using the stepwise method to clarify the effects of 16 factors on loneliness of males, 4 factors such as "SDS (Self-rating Depression Scale) ," "Independent interpersonal-coping," "Life satisfactions," "Social support by family/relatives" were selected at a 5% significant level. The multiple correlation coefficient was R=0.500. Judging from each standard partial regression coefficient of factors, higher SDS, higher independent interpersonal-coping, lower life satisfaction, less social support by family/relatives respectively was proved to increase loneliness of the male elderly people. 3) As the result of the same analysis performed with females, 5 factors such as "SDS," "Independent interpersonal-coping," "Life satisfaction," "Social support by family/relatives," "Social support by friends" were selected at a 5% significant level. The multiple correlation coefficient was R=0.580. Judging from each standard partial regression coefficient of factors, higher SDS, higher independent interpersonal-coping, lower life satisfaction, less social support by family/relatives, less social support by friends respectively was proved to increase loneliness of the female elderly people.

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The purpose of this research is to make clear the situation and structure of burnout among social welfare personnel in Japan by studying the relevance of personal characteristics to stress. The questionnaire research was done in 284 social welfare institutions where cooperation was received in Kansai region, and we analyzed it on the basis of the answers which were obtained from 2,801 people. The Maslach Burnout Invenstory (MBI; Maslach & Jacson,1981) , translated and revised for helping professionals in Japan by Tao & Kubo (1996) , was used to measure the degree of burnout. As a result of analysis, three factors-emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, reduced personal accomplishment-were extracted, which were found to be same as the preceding research. Among the three factors, emotional exhaustion showed significant relation with all eight personal characteristics. As a result of multi regression analysis, several to stress related significantly to the three factors of burnout. Therefore 'relation to client's family', 'the position and role in an organization' , and 'relation to another occupational category and another organization' showed significant relation with all three factors of burnout. But, 'changes in system and law', one of the factors of stress, was not related significantly to any of the three factors of burnout, suggesting that changes in system and law was unrelated to burnout.

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