The purpose of the study is to make clear the variations in concentrations and characteristics of nonstructural carbohydrate (NSC) and the relationships of NSC concentrations (NSC%) to some morphological and physiological traits in varieties and individuals of Italian ryegrass at vegetative phase grown in fall. In the present paper, varietal differences in tetraploid Italian ryegrass are reported. Twenty eight tetraploid varieties from different countries and various maturities were used. NSC of plant materials (leaf blade and stem) harvested at 50 (Nov.21) and 70 days (Dec.12) after emergence were extracted with decreasing ethanol concentrations and water and determined by Anthron method. Relationships of NSC% to some traits were investigated. 1) In general, NSC% in stem was higher in the varieties of Lolium multiflorum than L. westerwoldicum, and in the varieties from Europe than Japan and Uruguay or in late maturing varieties than early ones in L. multiflorum. The results were clearer on Dec.12 than on Nov.21. But some exceptional varieties existed. 2) High significant correlation coeffecients were obtained between NSC% of stem and leaf blade. 3) Definite varietal differences in both mono- and oligosaccharide concentrations and fructosan concentrations were obtained. 4) Differences in NSC% of the stem among varieties were primarily due to the differences in fructosan concentrations, especially low molecular weight fructosans i.e. fructosans extracted with 80% and 70% ethanol concentrations, and no such clear relationships as observed between NSC% and fructosan concentrations were obtained between NSC% and mono- and oligosaccharide concentrations. 5) In each varietal group i.e. L. multiflorum varieties from Europe, L. multiflorum varieties from Japan and L. westerwoldicum varieties, it is recognized that the higher the NSC% in the varieties is, the higher the degree of polymerization of fructosan is. 6) High significant correlation coefficient between NSC% and % dry matter wt. was obtained in the stem including all the varieties, and it is recognized that all the varietal groups showed the same regression line. Percent dry matter wt. is considered to be an index of NSC%.

View full abstract

The purpose of the study is to make clear the variations in concentrations and characteristics of nonstructural carbohydrate (NSC) and the relationships of NSC concentrations (NSC%) to some morphological and physiological traits in varieties and individuals of Italian ryegrass at vegetative phase grown in fall. In the present paper, differences among individuals are reported. Two experiments were carried out. Expt.I: Twenty four individuals in every three varieties i.e. Tottori-native, Waseaoba and Hitachiaoba were grown for 60 days (Nov.30) after emergence (Oct.1) in pots under natural environment in fall. The concentrations of NSC in leaf blade and stem, and relationships of NSC% to some traits were investigated. Expt.II: Fourteen individuals in every two varieties i.e. Tottori-native and Waseaoba were used. Each of them was divided into main stem and first appeared primary tiller at 25 days after emergence (Oct.15). Clones induced from the main stem and the first appeared primary tiller were named clonal population I and II, repectively in each variety. Harvesting was done at 60 days after division (Dec.14). NSC of leaf blade and stem were analyzed, and relationships of NSC% to % dry matter wt. and dry matter wt. within each clonal population and also relationships in the concentration and the characteristics on NSC, % dry matter wt. and dry matter wt. between clonal populations I and II were investigated in each variety. 1) Individual differences in NSC% of top from 7.3-22.8%, 9.6-24.9% and 9.4-21.1% of the dry matter in Tottori-native, Waseaoba and Hitachiaoba were obtained, respectively in Expt.I. 2) High significant positive correlations were obtained between NSC% of stem and leaf blade. 3) The concentrations were much higher and individual differences were much larger in fructosans than in mono- and oligosaccharides. 4) Differences in NSC% of the stem among individuals were primarily due to the differences in the fructosan concentrations, especially low molecular weight fructosans i.e. fructosans extracted with 80% and 70% ethanol concentrations, and no clear relationships were obtained between NSC% and mono- and oligosaccharide concentrations. 5) In Expt.I, high correlation coefficients more than 0.9 between NSC% and % dry matter wt. in stem and high significant positive correlations between NSC% and dry matter wt. on top were obtained. 6) In Expt.II, correlations of NSC% to % dry matter wt. and dry matter wt. within each clonal population were significant, and also significant correlations in NSC%, % dry matter wt. and dry matter wt. between clonal populations I and II were obtained in each variety, indicating that individual variations in growth and NSC% observed in the experiments are related to genetic variations among individuals. 7) It is considered that genetic variation of NSC% between individual plants is large. 8) % dry matter wt. in stem is considered to be an index which show relative differences of NSC% among individuals.

View full abstract

The purpose of the study is to make clear the variations in concentrations and characteristics of nonstructural carbohydrate (NSC) and the relationships of NSC concentrations (NSC%) to some morphological and physiological traits in varieties and individuals of Italian ryegrass at vegetative phase grown in fall. In the present paper, temporal changes of nonstructural carbohydrate and growth in fall are reported. Waseaoba and Tetrone were grown in pots under natural environment in fall. Plants were harvested 8 times i.e. every 7th day from Oct.30 (30 days after emergence) to Dec.18. Effects of temperatures on the changes of the concentrations and the characteristics of NSC were also investigated. 1) Top wt., stem wt./leaf wt. ratio, % dry matter wt. and NSC% were tended to increase as the time proceeds. 2) Temporal changes of NSC% both in leaf blade and stem were primaliry due to that in the fructosan concentrations, especially low molecular weight fructosans, i.e. fructosans extracted with 70% ethanol concentrations. Mono- and oligosaccharide concentrations were slightly lower on Oct.30 and tend to decrease in the later part of the experiment, but, in general, it is recognized that no remarkable temporal changs existed. As NSC% increased, the proportions of fructosan concentrations to NSC% increased. 3) NSC% and proportion of fructosan concentration to NSC% were lower in leaf blade than in stem. But it is clear that leaf blade accummulate NSC under low air temperature environment. 4) Temporal changes of NSC% were influenced by the changes of climatic factors as air temperature and solar radiation. 5) Plants grown under low air temperatures showed markedly higher concentrations and relatively higher degrees of polymerization of fructosan compared to that grown under high air temperatures.

View full abstract

Specific differences of nitrogen uptake rate and incorporation of absorbed nitrogen into leaf blade were examined for some subtropical grass species. Species used were rhodesgrass (Chloris gayana), dallisgrass (Paspalum dilatatum) and bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum). Na^<15>NO_3 was used as nitrogen source of water culture solution and ^<15>N was measured to determine nitrogen uptake and incorporation into leaf blade. Nitrogen concentrations in the solutions were 20ppm and 80ppm. Results were as follows. 1. Nitrogen uptake rate much differed with species, rhodesgrass and dallisgrass showing apporoximately 3.5 and 2 times higher values than bahiagrass, respectively. 2. The amount of nitrogen incorporated into leaf blade was also highest in rhodesgrass, which showed about 4.8 times higher value than bahiagrass. Dallisgrass incorporated about 1.7 times more nitrogen into leaf blade compared to bahiagrass. Comparison of percent distribution of absorbed nitrogen to each plant parts also demonstrated that rhodesgarss incoporated nitrogen most actively into leaf blade. 3. Specific differences of nitrogen uptake rate and nitrogen incorporation into leaf blade appeared more clearly in 80ppm nitrogen plot. Specific difference of capacity as a sink to fertilizer nitrogen was discussed by using all above and previous results. It has become apparent that capacity as a sink was the highest in rhodesgrass followed by dallisgrass and bahiagrass. Functional differences of extent to enlarge the size of sink and of the amount of nitrogen containable in the sink were thought to be main factors to cause specific difference of the capacity. Species which showed active nitrogen uptake and nitrogen incorporation into leaf blade to have higher function to enlarge of the size of sink.

View full abstract

Several experiments were conducted on the effects of varietal and cultural conditions to the production of silage materials of maize during 1963-1978, whereby the results were analyzed concerning the mutual relations between dry weights of different parts of a plant as well as energy yields thereof. Conclusions obtained are as follows: 1. The early maturity varieties, which are fully matured at a harvesting time in Tokachi area, showed high positive correlations between dry weights of ears, grains, stovers and their total weight regardless of the varieties, years, places and cultural conditions. 2. They also showed that the effects of such treatments as mentioned below on the dry weight of different parts of a plant were greater than those of the ratios of the different parts of the whole plant. Namely, they were subjected to the treatments that exceeded the ranges practised in the actural cultivation in terms of plant densities, fertilizer combinations, low temperature at various growing stages, and clipping made at seedling stages. 3. In a matrix of four varieties and four harvesting times, a high positive linear regression was shown between energy yield and total dry weight and dry weight of stovers. Meanwhile, a clear varietal difference was observed in a relation between energy yield and dry weight of ears. 4. The foregoing findings indicate that increased production of high quality materials for the whole crop silage could be achieved by use of early maturity varieties with the heavy dry weight of the ear under improved cultural conditions.

View full abstract

Using several hybrids, experiments were conducted to investigate the accumulations of nonstructural carbohydrates in the parts of a plant, especially in stover. The yields of dry matter, nonstructural carbohydrate and mono-oligo saccharide in hybrides with the longer maturing period were higher than those in hybrids with the shorter maturing period. The varietal differences in nonstructural carbohydrate yield were mainly due to a great varietal difference in mono-oligo saccharide yield. The differences were twofold in some cases. In the stover, a positive and significant correlation between dry matter content and mono-oligo saccharide content was observed among the hybrids. It was suggested that a maize breeding program for the whole crop silage of high quality and quantity would be performed well by way of increasing dry matter content in the stover as well as increasing dry weight in the ear and the stover.

View full abstract

Heterosis on dry weight and dry matter contents in ear and stover were studied, using two commercial double cross hybrids, "Wase-homare" and "Heigen-wase", as well as four single crosses, which are the components of the double crosses. In light of heterosis varying witth the single crosses was disclosed in the F_1 hibrids, an attempt was made to look into a relation between the relative degree of heterosis in the source and sink and the dry matter content of the stover. In the three single crosses, N19×To15, W41A×W79A and N19×CM7, the heterosis effect on dry weight was greater in the ear than in the stover ; then the heterosis effect on dry matter content was positive in the ear and negative in the stover. The result suggested that the heterosis effect in the three single crosses act stronger in the "sink" than in the "source". Whereas in the single cross, CM37×CMV3, the heterosis effect on dry weight in the ear showed a slightly positive direction, which was about the same degree of dry weight in the stover ; however, the heterosis effect on dry matter content of the stover showed a negative direction. The result suggested that the heterosis effect in the single cross worked stronger in the "source" than in the "sink". It was confirmed that developing single crosses with high yielding ability was necessary for the breeding of high yielding double cross hybrid for the whole crop silage materials.

View full abstract

Perennial ryegrass (PRG), Lolium perenne L. and tall fescue (TF), Festuca arundinasea Schreb. were sown separately and in a mixture at high and low densities (HD and LD) in order to find the relation between degree of species competition and leaf area index (LAI). At HD, competitive effects were observed 7th week after sowing, when LAI was 1.95 in a mixture, in such a way that both dry weight and leaf area per plant were negatively biased in TF, a suppressed species and positively biased in PRG, an aggressive one (Figs.2 and 3, Table 1). At LD, however, the effects were not so clear at that time, when LAI was 1.18, because of low competitive-values of TF. The same LAI of 1.18 had been shown already 5th week after sowing in a mixture of HD, when little effect of competition had been found. Eleventh week after sowing, when LAI reached 2.6, the effect of competition was clearly found. Therefore competition would presumably begin to occur as soon as LAI reached 1.5 to 2.0. At LD 11th week after sowing the growth of TF was more severely suppressed by PRG growing more aggressively than before. This shows the advance of competition with the increase of LAI. At HD, however, competitive-values of 11th week were almost the same as those of 7th week, in spite that LAI reached such a high level as 5.8. This may be caused by the diminished effect of competition due to the increased density effect. The advantage of PRG or the disadvantage of TF in competition was derived from the difference of the rates of emergence and seedling growth (Table 2).

View full abstract

Lolium perenne L. (PRG) and Festuca arundinacea Schreb. (TF) were sown separately (S) and in a equiproportionated mixture (M) at high and low densities (HD, LD) on April 20-22, 1977 to clarify whether an initial winner of interspecific competition appeared in a primary canopy continues its superiority in later canopies revived after defoliation. A split plot design was adopted with two replications. Densities were arranged in main plots and sowings were in sub-plots both in primary and third crop canopies. In each sub-plot 6 individuals per species were dug up at 30cm below soil surface, to measure some quantitative characters, four times at 2-week intervals from June 15 to July 26 (t_1-t_4) in the primary canopy and likewise from Sept.24 to Nov.4 (t_5-t_8) in the third crop canopy reviving after the second clipping of Sept.16. Additional measurements were carried out twice next spring concerning top weight and tiller number of some plants which survived winter. In general, most of quantitative characters were affected by competition so as to be biased toward positive direction in PRG but toward negative in TF with an exception of plant height, which was little affected (Figs.1-6). The competitive effects appeared at the later growth stage, t_4 of the primary canopy and became more clear in the third crop canopy (Table 2). It is worthy of note that the competitive effects were found even at such early stage of regrowth as t_5, 8 days after clipping when no mutual shading took place between the two competitors yet. This suggests that root competition acts the leading role when top competition is excluded or weakend by defoliation. Such a sequence of root-competitive advantage may be the main reason why an initial winner can keep its competitive superiority to an initial loser from canopy to canopy. The competitive superiority of PRG to TF, however, became obscure at the later growth stage, t_8 of the third crop canopy at HD, in such a way that the competitive effects promoting the growth of PRG plants disappeared, but not at LD (Table 2). The disappearance was ascertained next spring (Table 1). This may be caused incidentally by sampling error which is highly possible considering such a small samples as six individuals per species, the population of which has a large genetic variation. The possibility of sampling only small, weak plants particularly at HD is much emphasized considering density stress which may lead to skewing of plant weight distribution with a few large plants and a large number of small plants and may increase the skewing with the passage of time.

View full abstract

Four single and mixed swards, i.e. R (red clover single), O (orchardgrass single), O/R (orchardgrass-red clover mixture, broadcasted), and O-R (orchardgrass and red clover were sown in alternate rows) were made in May of 1971, to test the possibility of getting higher forage yield for longer period by lengthen the persistence of red clover which was included in the swards. Forages were cut four times each year. Before every cut in 1971 and the first cut in 1972, the production structure was compared among the four swards. To mix red clover with crchardgrass increased the dry matter and crude protein yields of cut herbage throughout 4 years, and the yield at O/R sward was highest, followed by O-R, O, and R in order. Red clover at R sward almost disappeared in the 3rd year and the vacant spots were invaded by weeds. While at O/R or O-R sward little weeds invaded and red clover was maintained pretty well even in the 4th year. The residual effect of the O/R sward on the subsequent maize yield was highest, being followed by O-R, R, and O swards in order.

View full abstract

Observations on the development of shoots and rhizomes, and the component ratio among organs of the biomass of M. sinensis patch were carried out in the surburbs of Shizuoka city (34 58' N, 138 24' E) from 1974 to 1979. 1) When the area of the patch amounted to above nearly 1, 000cm^2, the shoot and rhizome sizes attained to the maximum levels, respectively. The numbor of the overwintered rhizomes in these patches accounted for about 30% of the total numbers. 2) On these patches, tillerings were observed four times in a year at intervals of about two months. Consequently, there were two peaks in the distribution pattern of the height of shoots in summer. Such tillerings seemed to be closely related to the changes in the bulk density of the total rhizomes. 3) Tertiary and quaternary branched rhizomes in the current year seemed to affect directly the patch formation of next year. These overwintered and new rhizomes accounted for about a half of the total volum at the end of the growth. 4) The annual process of the patch growth was divided into the four phases, based on the seasonal changes in the dry weight distribution between some organs. In this region, the second phase characterized by vegetative propagation continued for about three months, presumably longer than its period in the cooler regions. 5) Both ratios of underground parts to aboveground parts and aboveground stem-sheaths to leaves, and the life-span of the rhizomes in the present investigation differed from the other results, especially the ratio of underground parts to aboveground parts showed a considerably lower value than that in the cooler regions.

View full abstract

Ladino clover (California) and alfalfa (Du Puits) were grown on an acidic mineral soil in 1/5,000a Wagner pots. Different levels of nitrogen were applied with or without liming to study the influence of soil acidity and applied nitrogen on the plant growth, symbiotic nitrogen fixation and chemical compositions of the plants. Results are as follows. 1. Growth of ladino clover and alfalfa was considerably favorable in limed plot irrespective of applied nitrogen levels. The difference of plant growth between the limed and the unlimed (acidic) plots became larger at the lower levels of nitrogen for ladino clover, whereas, in the unlimed plot of alfalfa, plant growth was depressed significantly regardless of nitrogen levels. 2. Growth and total nitrogen content of ladino clover in unlimed soil increased sharply with increasing of nitrogen levels while in limed plot they increased slightly. 3. Though nitrogen fixation capacities of both legumes were higher in limed plot, their capacities decreased abruptly with increasing of nitrogen levels. 4. Different responses to nitrogen fertilizer shown between plots with and without lime of ladino clover were due to different in nitrogen fixation capacities of both plots. 5. Ladino clover, of which the nitrogen source was mostly symbiotic nitrogen had lower content of crude protein and nitrate nitrogen and higher content of nitrogen-free extract (NFE) in the plant compared with that applied with a large amount of nitrogen. 6. Though heavy application of nitrogen without lime in ladino brought about good plant growth and yield, there remained some problems in feeding value, i.e. higher contents in crude protein and nitrate nitrogen and lower contents in NFE in the plant.

View full abstract

Effect of applied forage powders of four species (ground powders of alfalfa, ladino clover, orchard grass and Italian ryegrass), their application methods and soil pH on the ammonia and nitrite nitrogen volatilization under laboratory conditions was investigated to clear the nitrogen volatilization in the grassland. Results obtained are as follows. 1. Most part of volatilized nitrogen from applied forage powders on the soil surface was in the form of ammonia rather than as nitrite nitrogen. Nitrite nitrogen volatilized showed significantly low values. 2. Ammonia volatilization rates were different depending on the applied forage powders, which could be ranked at the order of alfalfa>ladino clover>orchardgrass>Italian ryegrass. The order coincided closely with the lowering of C/N ratios of applied forage powders. 3. Mixed application of forage powders with soil resulted in significantly decreased ammonia volatilization whereas nitrite nitrogen volatilization showed the reverse tendency. 4. Raising soil pH brought about increased ammonia and decreased nitrite nitrogen volatilization, however, even under acidic soil conditions, main nitrogen loss occurred through ammonia volatilization rather than nitrite nitrogen volatilization. 5. From the results of this experiment, critical ammonia volatilization in grassland of leguminous forages was considered to occur from fallen leaves or plant residues with low C/N ratios. In addition, liming practices for amelioration of soil reactions in the cultivated fields was considered to result in accelerated nitrogen loss through ammonia volatilization.

View full abstract

Effects of lime nitrogen application on the survial of Italian ryegrass (Lolium multiflorum, abbr. as Ir) and on the establishment of African millet sward (Eleucine corocana, abbr. as Am) in a serial non-tilled sowing were investigated by pot and field experiments. 1. In the field, Ir swards were treated with 0, 6, 12, 18 and 24KgN/10a using lime nitrogen or ammonium sulfate on May 19, June 2 and June 17, respectively and Am was oversown into Ir swards 3 days after fertilized. The better growth and establishment of Am were found on the field which received 24KgN/10a of lime nitrogen and in the seeding time when the soil temperature became above 25℃, that was on June 20. The survival of Ir decreased with increasing of lime nitrogen application and the higher rate of lime nitrogen application resulted in withering of Ir. The suppression effects of lime nitrogen on the residual growth of Ir were more remarkable on June 20 than on May 22. Both the chlorophyll content and root-activity of Ir which received the higher rate of lime nitrogen were extremely low in comparison with those of the ammonium sulfate plot. 2. In the pot experiment, 0, 0.1, 0.2, 0.4 and 0.6gN were applied to each pot using lime nitrogen or ammonium sulfate and Am were oversown into Ir swards at 4 levels of soil temperature (18, 23, 28, 33℃) respectively. In the lime nitrogen plots, the growth and the establishment of Am were accelerated with increasing of lime nitrogen application. The residual growth of Ir which received the higher rate of lime nitrogen was extremely suppressed at the higher soil temperature and the improvement of the establishment of Am was obtained at the soil temperature above 28℃. From these results, it was shown that the higher rate of the lime nitrogen application could effectively control the survial of Ir and improve the establishment of Am by reducing the competition between Am and Ir for the nutrient uptake and the light at the higher temperature of the surface soil.

View full abstract

Experiments were conducted during three years whereby orchardgrass previously treated with four levels of N fertilizer was harvested by the usual methods of silage making, chopped, and ensiled in experimental silos. Dry matter yield increased proportionally to the supply of fertilizer N up to the level of 10kg/10a (30kg/10a per year). As the level of fertilizer N increased, the contents of moisture, protein and nitrate became high, while that of WSC decreased. In the first year, there was positive effect of fertilizer N on the quality of silage, although the quality of all silage was of good. The quality of silage in the second and third years was depressed with the increasing level of fertilizer N up to 5 and 10kg/10a, respectively, but higher N fertilizer improved quality of silage. When grasses of high nitrate content (more than 0.19% in dry matter) were ensiled, inspite of small amount of WSC, no butyric acid was produced in resultant silage. It was suggested that, therefore, nitrate in high concentration in grass improves silage quality.

View full abstract

The flavor constituents of Italian ryegrass treated with the sun-curing, freeze-drying or heat-drying was collected by the Tenax-GC and the steam-distillation procedures and identified using a GC and a GC-MS to clarify the characteristic flavor constituents responsible for the odor of hay. The volatile constituents of fresh Italian ryegrass was mainly composed of several alcohols and esters, in which 1-penten-3-ol, cis-3-hexen-1-ol, and cis-3-hexenyl and trans-2-hexenyl acetates were found to be the most predominant components. The drying treatments had tremendous effects on the flavor constituents of the fresh Italian ryegrass and when it was freeze or heat-dried the amounts as well as the numbers of volatile compounds markedly declined compared with those when it was sun-cured. The heat-dried grass had a burnt odor and the thermal decomposition products such as furan, pyrazine and pyrrole compounds were detected in the grass. However, during the storage the numbers of volatiles in both the freeze-dried and the heat-dried Italian ryegrasses increased and after one month's storage, the volatile constituents of the dried grasses which received the three different drying treatments, respectively, became very similar. During the dryings most of the esters and alcohols found in the fresh Italian ryegrass diminished, while both the aldehydes such as butenal, pentanal, 3-methylbutanal, trans, trans-2, 4-hexadienal, hexanal and 2, 4-heptadienal and the acids such as propionic and caproic acids newly generated or increased through the drying and storage periods, in particular, during the storage a large amount of hexanal was produced. These aldehydes and acids appeared to play an important role in the formation of a typical hay odor.

View full abstract

The effect of daily available herbage allowance (DAHA) and daily available leaf allowance (DALA) on herbage intake by Holstein heifers grazing orchardgrass/tall fescue sward were studied. DAHA and DALA were measured by herbage and leaf dry matter, respectively, above 5cm height from ground level, per unit heifer weight per day (DM g/LW kg/day); and daily herbage intake (DM g/LW kg/day) was estimated by difference of herbage mass between the two successive days. The following results were obtained in the experiments. 1. Herbage intake per body weight per day was strongly affected by growth stages of gerbage. Especially, the intake was very low at the heading stage. 2. Herbage intake was depressed as decreasing available herbage per unit area. 3. Relation between herbage intake and DALA was not affected so much by growth stage or herbage mass per unit area. 4. Correlation cofficient between herbage intake and DALA was about 0.6 and regression between them was given as follows ; ln y=3.05-5.07/x, where y and x denote herbage intake (DM g/LW kg/day) and DALA (DM g/LW kg/day), respectively.

View full abstract

The location of cow-calf ranches in Japan moved from general farm villages to mountain villages or far distant villages from the central market for last twenty years, because of the low income of getting into the ranching business. Cow-calf ranches in Takane village in mountainous area of Gifu Prefecture were investigated for their management and land utilization, in order to analyze the factor of development of cow-calf farming. The results obtained are summarized as follows. 1. There are three types of land utilization in mountainous land, range, pasture and artificial forest. Range type brings the least return of all types. Return to pasture is less than to artificial forest, but that will be more than return to artificial forest in the near future, because price of calf shows an upward trend compared with price of timber. 2. The cultivated lands in Takane village are used as paddy fields for rice and upland fields for forage crops. As the village is high elevation and the temperature is low, rice yield per hectare is less and instable. Income productivity of forage crop is nearly equal to that of rice, but its productivity of forage crop will be higher than that of rice with the development of cow-calf farming in the near future. 3. Return to cnltivated land used as forage product is more than to pasture. But income productivity of labor of forage crop is lower than that of grazing in pasture. The most profitable land utilization by linear programing was combination of pasture and cultivated land used as forage product. We conclude that the cow-calf farming in the mountainous area will develop on the basis of forage product in the cutivated lands and grazing in pasture. Today, ranges are basic to the cow-calf farming in Takane village. In the future, their ranges should be changed into pastures to get more return to grassland. It is then very important the subject of securing finances for grassland establishment.

View full abstract