Leadership of middle management in private enterprises was empirically examined.
We prepared a questionnaire including both items measuring different aspects of supervisory behavior of middle management and items measuring such criterion variables as their subordinates' motivation, satisfaction and group processes. Survey was conducted in a large manufacturing company. Respondents were immediate subordinates of middle management and they described their superior's leadeship and their own motivation, satisfaction and group processes.
Items tapping leadership were submitted to factor-analysis. As a result, “Factor of performance-oriented behavior (P behavior) ” and “Factor of group maintenance-oriented behavior (M behavior) ” emerged. Furthermore, factor-analyzing items which had high loadings on Factor of P behavior produced Factor of “planning”, “execution”, “initiation”, “guidance”, “strictess” and “coordination”. Also, factor-analyzing items which had high loadings on Factor of M behavior produced Factor of “consideration”, “fairness” and “self-righteousness”.
Relationship between leadership and criterion variables were examined. It was found that, under middle management who scored high in both P behavior and M behavior, subordinates showed high motivation, high satisfaction and effective group processes. Middle management who scored high in only M behavior ranked second, those who scored high in only P behavior ranked third and those who scored low in both P behavior and M behavior ranked last in criterion variables.

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Some recent studies on leadership have demonstrated that a leader behaves flexibly to cope with varied group situations (subordinates' performance level, task structure, and task complexity). These studies, however, have not explained theoretically why a leader behaves flexibly in different situations.
In order to investigate the mechanism of a leader's flexible behavior, the following two hypotheses were examined, using 1576 male subjects (first-line managers) engaged in railway traffic.
Hypothesis 1: Considering various situations of work group, the first-line manager will establish his own management objective which is most suitable for his workshop. Results showed that such situational factors as “manager-subordinate relation”, “manager-labor union relation”, “pride as a manager”, “relation with upper level manager”, and “reliance on management policy of organization” had strong influences on establishing the management objective. Further, considering the favorableness of these situational factors for the leader, there seemed to exist a clear hierarchy in establishing the management objective.
Hypothesis 2: Leadership behavior of the first-line manager will vary in accordance with his own management objective. As Expectancy Theory (Vroom 1964) suggests, the manager will choose behaviors which have instrumentality to achieve his own management objective. Results supported this hypothesis. Score of Performance function was significantly higher for the managers with task-oriented management objective than for the managers with human (group) -oriented management objective. In contrast, score of Maintenance function was significantly higher for the managers with human (group) -oriented objective. In addition, the correlations between subjects' instrumentality percept-ons (the degree to which his own leadership behavior is seen as leading to accomplishing his own management oblective) and his actual leadership behavior (Performance and Maintenance function) were high. That is, Performance function was r=0.47 (p<. 01), and Maintenance function was r=0.51 (p<. 01).
It was concluded from these findings that we need to hypothesize the moderating effect of management objective in explaining a leader's flexible behavior. Furthermore, a model concerning leadership process was proposed.
Finally, based upon the leadership process model, we can successfully interpret the Contingency Model of leadership effectiveness (Fiedler 1967).

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The aim of the present study was to elucidate the differential effects of experimenter's verbal instructions based on P, M and PM leadership pattems in PM leadership theory on subject's psychomotor performance and heart rate.
Forty five junior college women were divided into three groups randomly. Subjects were tried on mirror drawing test, two three-minutes massed work periods being separated by one minute rest pause, and the same time heart rate was measured. Additionally, the psychological time was measured by estimation method, and state anxiety by Spielberger's STAI-I type. After the first work period, three groups were tested with P, M and PM instructions.
The main results were as follows;
(1) Heart rate was increased by instructions and mirror drawing test. But heart rate during the test increased in order of P, PM and M group.
(2) As regards task performance, it was found that the speed was accelerated by three instructions. But the accuracy under P instruction was not improved, and PM, M instructiohs accelerated accurate performance.
(3) Psychological time decreased in PM and M groups, but no change in P group.
(4) The decrease in state anxiety score was found only in PM group.
From these results, it was suggested that PM instruction aroused opimal arousal level.

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The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of equality of varying degrees of influence exerted by individual members in the process of decision making upon decision time, perceived efficiency and perceived equality.
Subjects were seventy-two university students and twenty-four three-person groups were formed. They made a decision on twelve words by selecting them from a word list in order to use them in a composition which they would subsequently write by group work. Observers judged the number of words decided by each member and this number served as the measure of the amount of influence exerted by each member. The index of equality of influence was defined by the same way as the equality of family income was defined with Lorenz curve in economics.
The results showed that the greater the equality was, the more decision time was required and the lower the perceived efficiency was. It was also found that the greater the equality was, the larger the variance of decision time was and it suggested that in the case of decision making, in which members exerted influence almost equally, decision time was determined by some other factors in the members' interaction processes.
As to the perceived equality, there were no differences among each level of equality. But, in the groups whose equality was considerably low, those members who exerted large influence perceived equality to be low and those members who exerted medium influence perceived equality to be high. From this result, it was considered necessary that such variables concerning individual members as perceived equality should be explained by both a set of variables representing the situation of group as a whole and a set of variables representing the situation of individual members.

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In this paper the abnormal behavior induced by long-term competition for food between two rats cohabitating in the same operant chamber is discussed with regard to its application to the animal model of psychopathology and with reference to the Hebb's criteria of neurosis. Two male rats which had learned individually to press a lever and to receive a pellet of food under a fixed ratio schedule were put into an operant chamber with two levers and one feeder.
The pair of rats, successively exposed to three conditions, showed various behavioral patterns on the basis of the dominance hierarchy as follows: (1) With the competition for food under free feeding condition, only the subordinate rat shwed abnormal behavior, i. e. heterophagia. (2) Under the restricted feeing condition, the subordinate rat's abnormality increased and, concomitantly, circadian rhythms of various activites shifted to feeding time except for aggressive activity. (3) With return to individual housing and free feeding, only the subordinate rat showed this abnormality as the disruption of rhythms for at least one week.
Since this abnormal behavior corresponds to Hebb's definitions, the abnormal behavior of this model suggests the possibility of its application to experimental neurosis.

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The present study was conducted to investigate the effect of the presence of others on individual behavior in the social facilitation phenomenon, manipulating the following three factors, that is, the degree of response facility to the task, the number of others present and the form of the others' presence.
It was examined how these factors affect the behavior of individuals in both coaction and audience situation, at the same time the difference between the coaction effect and the audience effect was compared (Experiment I: coaction situation, Experiment II: audience situation).
Ss were 144 university students (The number of male and female subjects was 72, respectively).
Subject's task was to rearrange an alphabet sequence.
The main results were as follows.
1. In the facile task to respond, the number of correct responses increased in both coaction and audience situation, and especially for the coaction situation, the number of error responses decreased.
2. The difference of the effect based on the number of others present was not found in the coaction situation, but a tendency of the difference was found in audience situation.
3. Neither coaction nor audience situation produced a difference of performance based on the factor of a form of presence.
4. In the task facilitated, upon examining the number of correct responses over trials, the facilitation effect was observed especially in the first half of the trials.

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