Recently, the behavior of essential trace metal elements in living organisms has attracted more and more attention as their dynamics have been found to be tightly regulated by metallothionines, transporters, etc. As the physiological and/or pathological roles of such metal elements are critical, there have been many non-invasive methods developed to determine their cellular functions, mainly by small molecule fluorescent probes. In this review, we focus on probes that detect intracellular zinc and monovalent copper. Both zinc and copper act not only as tightly bound cofactors of enzymes and proteins but also as signaling factors as labile or loosely bound species. Many fluorescent probes that detect mobile zinc or monovalent copper are recognition-based probes, whose detection is hindered by the abundance of intracellular chelators such as glutathione which interfere with the interaction between probe and metal. In contrast, reaction-based probes release fluorophores triggered by zinc or copper and avoid interference from such intracellular chelators, allowing the detection of even low concentrations of such metals. Here, we summarize the current status of the cumulative effort to develop such reaction-based probes and discuss the strategies adopted to overcome their shortcomings.

Although many diseases in which reactive oxygen species (ROS) and free radicals are involved in their pathogenesis are known, and antioxidants that effectively capture ROS have been identified and developed, there are only a few diseases for which antioxidants have been used for treatment. Here, we discuss on the following four concepts regarding the development of applications for disease treatment by regulating ROS, free radicals, and lipid oxidation with the findings of our research and previous reports. Concept 1) Utilization of antioxidants for disease treatment. In particular, the importance of the timing of starting antioxidant will be discussed. Concept 2) Therapeutic strategies using ROS and free radicals. Methods of inducing ferroptosis, which has been advocated as an iron-dependent cell death, are mentioned. Concept 3) Treatment with drugs that inhibit the synthesis of lipid mediators. In addition to the reduction of inflammatory lipid mediators by inhibiting cyclooxygenase and leukotriene synthesis, we will introduce the possibility of disease treatment with lipoxygenase inhibitors. Concept 4) Disease treatment by inducing the production of useful lipid mediators for disease control. We describe the treatment of inflammatory diseases utilizing pro-resolving mediators and propose potential compounds that activate lipoxygenase to produce these beneficial mediators.

Microglia are immune cells in the brain that can respond to endogenous and exogenous substrates to elicit inflammatory reactions. The transcription factor nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B induces proinflammatory gene expression in response to foreign matter via pattern recognition receptors; thus, nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B is a master regulator of inflammation. During the inflammatory process, very large amounts of reactive oxygen species are generated and promote the onset and progression of inflammation. Interestingly, nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B drives the transcription of superoxide dismutase 2 in many types of cells, including microglia. Superoxide dismutase 2 is an antioxidative enzyme that catalyzes the dismutation of superoxide anions into molecular oxygen and hydrogen peroxide. Of note, nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B can initiate inflammation to elicit proinflammatory gene expression, while its transcription product superoxide dismutase 2 can suppress inflammation. In this review, we use recent knowledge to describe the interaction between oxidative stress and nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B and discuss the complicated role of microglial superoxide dismutase 2 in inflammation.

Certain nutrients stimulate glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1) secretion from the intestinal enteroendocrine L-cells, but due to rapid degradation by the DPP-4 enzyme, >90% is converted to inactive metabolite before reaching the target organs via circulation. Plants are a source of potent bioactive compounds that promote endogenous secretion of GLP-1 from L-cells. To search for the effective bioactive compound from a vast library of natural compounds, a reliable and low-cost assay is required considering the high cost of commercial assays. We developed a low-cost sandwich enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (s-‍ELISAs) for detecting ‘total’, ‘sensitive active’, and ‘wide-range active’ GLP-1. The s-ELISAs exhibited high sensitivity with measurement ranges between 0.94~240, 0.98~62.5, and 4.8~4,480 pmol/L, respectively. High precision was observed; i.e., CVs within 5% and 20% for intra- and inter-assay variations, respectively, and excellent recovery of exogenous GLP-1 from assay buffer. The developed s-ELISAs had the same performance as the commercial kits and approximately 80% cheaper cost. For their application, cinnamtannin A2-induced GLP-1 secretion was confirmed in STC-1 cells consistent with our previous findings. The s-ELISAs were further validated by measuring plasma GLP-1 level in mice after oral administration of black soy bean seed coat extract containing cinnamtannin A2.

Hepatitis, a major human chronic inflammation disease, has been linked to oxidative stress, which can be initiated by radicals produced during the oxidative metabolism. Oxidative damage has been also observed in arthritis-induced mice. Here we evaluated whether supplementation of a cell preparation of Enterococcus faecalis EC-12 could induce superoxide dismutase activity and/or damage in the livers of healthy mice or mice with arthritis. In Experiment 1, both healthy and arthritis-induced mice were orally given a saline solution, or a solution with a low (0.2 mg/mouse/day) or a high (2.0 mg/mouse/day) concentration of E. faecalis EC-12 for 49 consecutive days. Manganese superoxide dismutase activity increased in E. faecalis EC-12-supplemented mice but with no arthritis. In Experiment 2, mice received orally either a saline or an E. faecalis EC-12 suspension (10 mg/kg of body weight/day) for 28 consecutive days. No changes in tissues and levels of function markers and 8-hydroxy-2'-deoxyguanosine were observed in mouse livers, inferring that E. faecalis EC-12 supplementation caused no damage. While mRNA expression of copper/zinc superoxide dismutase remained unaltered, that of manganese superoxide dismutase increased in E. faecalis EC-12 administration mice. In conclusion, at least in healthy mice, E. faecalis EC-12 supplementation stimulated manganese superoxide dismutase activity in liver tissues with no side effects.

Antioxidants are useful for the treatment of oxidative stress mediated liver damage. A naturally occurring antioxidant γ-oryzanol is rapidly hydrolyzed to its active hydrophobic metabolite, ferulic acid, inside the body. Limitations associated with the hydrophobicity of ferulic acid can be overcome by encapsulating in a liposomal formulation. As intravenously administered nanoparticles (including liposomes) can effectively reach the liver, such systems may be suitable drug delivery carriers to treat liver injury. In this study, we prepared a liposomal formulation of ferulic acid (ferulic-lipo) and examined its effects on liver damage induced by CCl₄. Ferulic-lipo were ~100 nm in size and drug encapsulation efficiency was about 92%. Ferulic-lipo showed potent scavenging efficacy against hydroxyl radical compared to α-tocopherol liposomes. Ferulic-lipo significantly prevented CCl₄-mediated cytotoxicity in human hepatocarcinoma cells. Furthermore, intravenous administration of ferulic-lipo significantly reduced alanine aminotransferase and aspartate amino transferase levels in a rat model of liver injury. CCl₄-mediated reactive oxygen species generation in liver was also reduced by intravenous administration of ferulic-lipo. Hepato­protective effects of ferulic-lipo were demonstrated by histo­logical observation of CCl₄-induced liver tissue damage. Therefore, ferulic-lipo exhibit potent antioxidative capacity and were suggested to be an effective formulation for prevention of oxidative damage of liver tissue.

We comprehensively assessed the roles of systemic redox markers by including both prooxidant and antioxidant markers in 121 Japanese subjects (mean ± SD age, 70 ± 11 years; 38 men) with no ocular pathology except age-related cataract. Serum levels of lipid peroxides, ferric-reducing activity, and thiol antioxidant activity were measured using the diacron reactive oxygen metabolite (dROM), biologic antioxidant potential (BAP), and sulfhydryl (SH) tests, respectively, using a free-radical analyzer. Univariate analyses suggested that older age, higher pulse rate, worse best-corrected visual acuity (BCVA), higher intraocular pressure, and higher cataract grade were associated with a lower SH level. Scatterplots revealed virtually linear associations between age and the SH level (estimate, −4.4 μM/year). Multivariate analyses suggested that older age, higher systolic blood pressure, and worse BCVA were associated with a lower SH level. Neither the univariate nor multivariate analyses, except between female sex and higher dROM level, were associated with the dROM or BAP level. A lower serum SH level was the driver of aging itself and age-related decline in VA due to cataract. The serum SH level may be an excellent predictor of aging status in each subject.

Fructose is associated with hyperuricemia and gout development. Focusing on fructose and fructose-containing disaccharides, we investigated the effects of three different types of carbohydrates (fructose, sucrose, and isomaltulose) on uric acid metabolism and gene expression profiling in peripheral white blood cells. In a randomized crossover study, ten healthy participants ingested test drinks of fructose, sucrose, and isomaltulose, each containing 25 g of fructose. Plasma glucose, serum and urine uric acid, and xanthine/hypoxanthine concentrations were measured. Microarray analysis in peripheral white blood cells and real-time reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction were examined at 0 and 120 in after the intake of test drinks. Serum uric acid concentrations for group fructose were significantly higher than group sucrose at 30–120 min and were significantly higher than those for group isomaltulose at 30–240 min. Several genes involved in the “nuclear factor-kappa B signaling pathway” were markedly changed in group fructose. No significant differences in the mRNA expression levels of tumor necrosis factor, nuclear factor-kappa B, interleukin-1β, and interleukin-18 were noted. This study indicated that fructose intake (monosaccharide) elevated serum uric acid concentrations compared with disaccharide intake. Differences in the quality of carbohydrates might reduce the rapid increase of postprandial serum uric acid concentrations.

Several new treatments for ulcerative colitis have been developed recently. The depletion of leukocytes by granulocyte and monocyte adsorption apheresis (GMA) was developed and adapted for patients with ulcerative colitis with rare adverse events. We investigated whether treatment with GMA and prednisolone (GMA + PSL) is more effective than PSL alone for patients with moderate to severe ulcerative colitis. Forty-seven patients with moderate to severe ulcerative colitis were retrospectively analyzed. Among the 47 patients, 27 received PSL, while 20 received GMA + PSL. The clinical activity of ulcerative colitis was evaluated using the Lichtiger clinical activity index (CAI) and serum levels of C-reactive protein. Mayo endoscopic score (MES) was used to examine endoscopic activity. The clinical remission rate was significantly higher in the GMA + PSL group than in the PSL group (65% vs 29.6%, p = 0.0206). The mucosal healing rate was also significantly higher in the GMA + PSL group than in the PSL group (60% vs 26%, p = 0.0343). The combination of GMA and steroids may be more effective than steroids alone for inducing clinical remission and mucosal healing in patients with moderate to severe ulcerative colitis.

Visual display terminal work has increased rapidly in recent years. Loss of visual acuity is an unfortunate associated effect. Here, we performed a randomized, placebo-controlled study in 60 healthy adults. Participants received a diet containing astaxanthin (9 mg/day) or placebo for 6 weeks. Visual acuity, functional visual acuity, and pupil constriction rate were measured before and after visual display terminal work. In participants aged ≥40 years, corrected visual acuity of the dominant eye after visual display terminal work at 6 weeks after intake demonstrated a higher protective effect of astaxanthin in the astaxanthin group vs the control group (p<0.05). In participants aged <40 years, no significant difference was seen between the astaxanthin and control groups. Moreover, no significant difference was found in functional visual acuity and pupil constriction rate between the astaxanthin and control groups. These results suggest astaxanthin reduces oxidative stress caused by visual display terminal work. Age-related reduction in ciliary muscle strength is likely the main detractor of visual acuity. Correspondingly, astaxanthin reduced visual display terminal work-induced visual stress in the middle-aged and elderly. This study was registered in the UMIN-CTR database (UMIN000043089).

Zinc intake has reduced hospitalizations in patients with ulcerative colitis (UC), highlighting the need to maintain blood zinc levels. This prospective study investigated whether the promotion of zinc intake and a Japanese diet (high in n-3 fatty acids) could induce clinical remission in patients with mild active UC. Patients with mild active UC were randomly assigned to either (1) continue an unrestricted diet or (2) receive nutritional guidance promoting zinc intake and a Japanese diet. The primary endpoint was clinical remission at 24 weeks. Secondary endpoints were the Ulcerative Colitis Endoscopic Index of Severity (UCEIS) scores, Clinical Activity Index (CAI), Geboes Histopathology Score (GHS), and biomarkers, including zinc levels, measured at 12 and 24 weeks. Nutritional assessments were performed using the Food Frequency Questionnaire. The CAI, UCEIS, and GHS scores were significantly lower in the intervention group than in the control group, with a significantly higher proportion of patients achieving clinical remission. Furthermore, the intervention group exhibited weight gain and significantly increased blood zinc levels. The combination of promoting dietary zinc intake and a Japanese diet rich in n-3 fatty acids can induce clinical remission in patients with mild active UC.

Percutaneous treatment of symptomatic hepatic cysts includes simple drainage and drainage with sclerosing agents. We compared the efficacy of simple drainage with that of drainage with minocycline infusion for treating symptomatic hepatic cysts. We retrospectively evaluated 11 patients who underwent percutaneous drainage of symptomatic hepatic cysts. In seven cases, minocycline infusion was added at the discretion of the clinician. Cyst volume was evaluated before drainage, immediately after drainage, and after long-term follow-up. Cyst volume was calculated before treatment by multiplying the orthogonal diameters using the ellipsoid formula. Relapse was defined as the regrowth of the cyst with symptoms. Cyst volume immediately after drainage and after long-term follow-up was significantly less than that before treatment for the drainage with minocycline infusion group (p<0.05) but not for the simple drainage group. The relapse rates were 25% (1/4) for the simple drainage group and 0% for the drainage with minocycline infusion group. Drainage with minocycline infusion could be a promising option for treating symptomatic hepatic cysts, although simple drainage was not reliable.