According to recent reports from the United States, it is losing the lead in several fields of science and technology such as new materials, data graphics processing, artificial intelligence, optical electronics, and medical equipment.Overcoming this sense of decline with require bold leadership by the U.S. government, with policies needed to lower the cost of capital, reduce export controls, relax anti-trust laws and redesign the production process.In fact it may be because of this leadership in industrial policy provided by the Japanese government that Japan has risen to receive the attention of the world today.During this same period, an outline for the next phase of Japan's development has been published in the 1989 White Paper of the Science & Technology Agency. This paper is not only taken as the basis for the policies of all of the government bodies involved in science & technology, but also serves as a common reference for the nation in general.For the future development of Japan, it is very important to develop a thoughtful strategy in order to realize the international goals described in the White Paper. It is the aim of The Journal of Science Policy and Research Management to contribute to this planning process.

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This article is the brief report on the results of a questionnaire sent to firms participating in the Research Association for Mining and Manufacturing Technology (Gijutsu Kenkyu Kumiai) Program. The questionnaire is intended to find how R&D staffs in the private sector think about cooperative R&D in the form of these Research Associations. The items of the questionnaire are as follows: the number of times and the purpose of participation, the route leading to participation, the theme and its attraction, the results, the key points for success, the problems, the expectations, and the roles and perspectives of the cooperative R&D (12 tables). The following points are clarified:- Many small-scaled companies have not taken part; large-scaled firms have dominated.- "Basic research" and "trend-watching of advanced technologies" are considered to be the higher priorities of the purpose of the cooperative R&D and to be accomplished very well. We think these two items indicate the direction of the future cooperative R&D.- "Cancellation of technological gaps for rival companies" is the lowest priority and is the least accomplished. This shows the fact cooperative R&D has less implication for firms in competition.- The cooperative R&D programs have addressed R&D which single companies cannot conduct alone.- Technology Acquisition (Technology Transfer) and the level-up of technologies are included as a reason for participation.- "Setting clear objectives", "Existence of a promoter" and "correspondence of interests of participants" are highly cited as key points for success.- The large problems of cooperative R&D are defects in the system.- More than 70% of the responding companies assert that cooperative R&D in the form of Research Associations should be actively supported in the future.- About 40% of the responding firms think there are many constraints in the current system for international cooperative research, for more advanced research and for basic research.

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In recent years, cooperative research programs have become popular in Western Countries.These programs help participating firms to increase the efficacy of their research activities and use of funds, and reduce the hesitation to support basic research stemming from fear of the inevitable spillover of research results.On the other hand, cooperative research programs have draw backs such as the cost of organizing and operating research institutions, and disturbing free competition in the market place. Therefore, pre- and post-evaluations for programs are indispensable.Finally, we have to pay attention to the danger that this tide of cooperative research may lead to an undesirable increase in "Techno-nationalism".

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This paper describes some aspects of networks based on the experience.There is a difference between one who enters into a network and one who joins it. The former reflects an individual who take a passive position, who doesn't know to share and cannot discover his own problems and solve them. The latter reflects an individual who takes an active standpoint, who voluntarily acts with on basis of his own principles, and keeps a balance between "self" interests and "social" ones. Most of these individuals will take risks and engage in sharing.It is asserted that joining networks involves experiencing non-ordinary plays and/or actions, with this giving rise to an "awareness" or realization of one's potential ability. The essence of the non-ordinary process is the chain reaction which it involves. Non-ordinariness means extending beyond one's usual framework of thinking and doing to the selection of dreams or ideas about what should be.Networking has three paradoxes. First, in a network, giving-and-taking should generally be asked, but taking-and-taking must be requested. Second, it is desirable that the network be local to avoid wasting time, but it must also be broad so that it can be developed. Third, a network produces vertical hierarchy even though it is intended to develop horizontal relations.There are also plural networks, with the formation of meta-networks following the existence of the particular person as a "catalyst". The quality of the catalyst and of individual networks decided the success of the meta-network. It is necessary that the network is recognized as "fair (ichi)". In this case, information is traded as merchandise, and kanjin is produced, which consists of two elements, "code" and "mode".The strategy of the network forms around the need to adjust or delete conflicts within it. These conflicts can be regarded as "fluctuations" of the network organization, breaking, for example, the "equilibrium" in it.

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In Japan, private firms have engaged in a large number of joint research projects, with the government promoting and supporting these projects by building up systems for support such as the Research Association for the Mining and Manufacturing Industries created in 1961. Recently in European countries and in the United States, many joint research projects have also been initiated by private firms, and there is a strong interest in the experience of the Japanese programs.At the same time, it is recognized that an increasingly important policy issue is that of attaining equivalent access to resources of innovation such as knowledge, technology information, and market funds. In particular, demands from abroad for access to research conducted by private firms is increasing.The purpose of this research is to investigate and analyse the trends of firm participation in joint research and to search for means of resolving the problem of the access. For this analysis we have focussed on a set of joint research projects supported by the government.We find that in the research association system, joint researches by dissimilar types of industries rather than similar types of industries has been increasing. There has also been an increase in projects supporting generic technologies.In the 1970's, R&D relating to electronics, mechatronics and big system technologies increased, and in the 1980's programs emerged which addressed new materials and biotechnology. In recent years, projects targeting generic technologies have received priority, with the research involving the combination of many industrial sectors.In the similar types of industries, the major firms and the diversified firms are well represented in joint research projects. These projects are devided into two groups: projects in which major firms of the similar industries participate, and projects in which only one of the major firms participates.

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The purpose of this article is to review the carious cooperative research programs in science and technology development in the EC. Facing market unification in 1992, the formation of cooperative programs has increased briskly in recent years. Cooperative R&D in the EC has proceeded according to the Framework Program (1st; 1984-1987, 2nd; 1987-1991). This article explains the research organization and research objectives of each project under the Framework Program, and reviews the proposed activities of the 3rd Framework Program (1990-1994).The promotion of research networks amongst industries in the EC is also described, followed by a discussion of cooperative R&D with European countries beyond the EC, through programs such as EUREKA and ESF. In addition, as an obstacle to cooperation, the conservativeness of each sector is pointed to.Finally, the future prospects of the relationship between the EC and Japan are considered.

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The significance of this article lies in that the author tries to regard the existing various types of innovations and enterprise behabiors, the object which is to attain innovations, as a problem of enterprise's decision-making under which the company try to harmonize the logic of science and technology and the logic of business.Innovation type A and B are the types of R&D-leading. New basic technology is proposed first and then evaluated. The evaluation would be required of the future prospect of the proposed technology and, at the same time, of its feasibility. Secondly, in the stage of development planning of new product or method, close investigation about budget, periods, manpower are to be made. Thirdly, to realize the planning these three activities are to be made: to make products mature, to monitor the development process, and to feedback this information.Innovation type C and D are the types of Market-leading. In type C innovation, following four points are very important; to pay an attention to market needs and derive hints for inspiration from there; to know feasible directions for development of the technology; to change ideas flexibly; to pioneer new application field by the combination with related technologies. In type D innovation, followings are the points of innovation; to pay an attention to the markert side's requirements and claimes; to find problems on the side of producers; to try to bring forth original ideas; to improve the technology even at the slow pace; to review the whole design of the product or method.Innovation is an administrative behavior with high uncertainty. Companies, to make sure its profitability, will manage to utilize the existing technological or marketing ability. The author states that they could do this by the shift-of-innovation-type. The shift-of-innovation-type plan is a decision-making, by which, judging industry trend and the company's own resources, one can change the selected innovation type.

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With the emerging importance of R&D Cost-effectiveness evaluation for overall R&D management of high-tech industries, it is crucially important that the figure-of-merit in such evaluations be adapted to the dynamic change characterizing this R&D-industry age in which R&D costs are reaching almost 10〜20 percent of gross sales. This paper establishes such adaptability of the figure-of-merit proposed. It also shows how to extend the applicable area of research described in the author's previous papers [1] [2] [3].Also, through discussions with top and middle managers of product-oriented "Commissioned Research" sponsors (Fig. 1), the author empirically demonstrates the limitations and most suitable way of using quantitative Cost-Effectiveness evaluation figures. For future development of Cost-Effectiveness evaluation, stress is laid on its increasing importance as an early warning signal or a positive attention flag for R&D management and proposes new evaluation figures including some modifications of the present one.

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日本におけるR&Dへの取り組み方(マネジメント)の現状を見直し、日本に適すると思われるR & Dのパターンを提示しながら、企業における研究活動のあり方を検討した。日本のR&Dは民間主導で進められており、民間企業のR&Dは、製品企画から販売までを担う技術革新の現場を主体に展開され、創造的な提案活動等によって活性化されている。企業のR&Dとその研究活動は、技術革新の現場を補助する研究という非線形の関係にあると推定し、具体的なパターンのモデルによってそれを確認した。同パターンからは、技術革新を担う部署・企業の間で、科学的・技術的知識を交換しあうことが重要、という指針が導き出された。

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