In England, educational administration was based on the Partnership among central, local authorities and schools. However, Quality Assurance State (QAS) had been merged under Thatcher's Conservative Govemment in 1980's and 1990's. QAS means a State that delivers welfare and education services by not itself but agencies in both private and public sectors and that plays roles as a target setter and a monitor to maintain quality and standard in services. Furthermore, introducing a market principle and corrmetition via parental choice into schools, it gave school more autonomy in the name of 'Local Management of School - LMS' in order to survive under severe conditions such as a declining school population. In general, Thatcher tried to sweep away the intermediate bodies such as LEA and trade unions, for she did not believe in the existence of society between a State and individuals. Furthermore, Mr. Baker, who was the Secretary of State for Education at that time, tried to minimize the power of teaching professions and LEAs. Both Thatcher and Baker believed that improving educational standards would be achieved only by competition and the disclosure of information. As a result, LEA would almost disappear. In 1997, when New Labour came to power under Blair's leadership, it did not change the strategies developed under the Conservative governments. In other words, New Labour Government succeeds the QAS framework. However, there are some distinguished and important differences, which New Labour Government picked up from some LEAs' activities in 1990's and which lead to 'the Third Way'. New Labour Government revitalized LEA and gave it new roles as a monitor and an adviser inthe area. If LEA fails to do the job, its services will have to be contracted out. The Government also invited private schools to be a partner to improve general educational standards. Furthermore, New Labour asks private company or citizen to help sinking' schools and 'sinking' LEAs by using their know-how to manage service in more efficient ways. City Academies, for example, are set up under certain conditions; only in poor areas: not to make profit; not to select pupils; not to charge any fee and so forth. According to Giddens, under the Third Way, we have to build a society with active citizens with the inclusion as social justice. New Labour Government policies seem to realize this idea. It is clear that the Labour's QAS is different from that of the Conservative. Under the Labour's QAS, evaluation and the disclosure of information give opportunities to develop appropriate remedies for sinking schools and sinking LEAs.

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Devolution Reform since the end of nineties prompts local governments to tackle educational reforms independent from Central Government. Tokyo Metropolis is remarkable among those local governments. (1) High school absorption and reorganisation Tokyo Metropolitan Board of Education started an extensive scheme to absorb and reorganise public high schools in 1997. While the scheme is abolishing 67 of full-time schools and 54 of part-time (evening) schools, it is establishing 50 of "new type" schools. TMG's restructuring policies of public services eagerly prompt the scheme. (2) Reform of school management and personnel administration of teachers TMBE are adopting new school management policies, which are based on New Public Management. Firstly, they are concentrating the function of planning and decision making to the top management section (Tokyo Metropolitan Office of Education). Secondary, to establish principals' leadership, they are reorganising school structure along with introducing School Management Plan. They introduced middle management teacher post (shukan). The principal is obliged to make SMP accordant with TMOE's policies and guideline. SMP must include midterm (3-5 years) objectives and annual targets TMBE introduced a new system of teacher evaluation in 2000 that was the first among local governments. (3) Conservative and nationalistic policies Since Shintarou Ishihara acceded Tokyo Metropolitan Governor, the policies are declining to conservative and nationalism. TMG launched a conservative campaign of child discipline (Kokoro no Tokyo Kakumei) in 1999, and TMBE introduced an ultra-nationalistic textbook to Metropolitan Schools for Disabled. (4) Reorganisation of Metropolitan University and Colleges. In August of 2003, TMG suddenly abolished the reorganisation plan of Metropolitan University and Colleges, which had been discussed and agreed between the university, colleges and TMG. TMG declared that the new plan is to abolish present university and colleges, and to establish New University, which is independent from present ones. Those educational policies of TMBE are strongly influenced by general administrational policies of TMG. Financial situation is prompting to high school absorption. Personnel management systems for teachers are based on that of general administrative personnel. The proportion of teachers among executives of TMOE has been reduced since nineties. Though teachers, especially principals, used to have certain influences to educational policy making process, they are excluded from the process. Educational administration of local governments used to be independent from general administration, which was partly because of strong central control. Devolution Reform encourage local government to have independent policies of education, which have a possibility to enrich local democracy of education/educational-administration. However, in Tokyo case, Devolution also has jeopardy to reduce professional group's (teachers' and professional educational administrators') power and to destroy the autonomy of education/educational administration.

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The development of counseling theory in1950s America should be considered as a transition of educational thought: from guidance to counseling. This paper aims to reveal the process of transition, and to investigate an educational implication of that transition by focusing on C. Gilbert Wrenn's "personnel work". The title of APA's Division 17, one of major professional associations of counseling, was changed from "Division of Counseling and Guidance" to "Division of Counseling Psychology" in 1952. The title of change best symbolized the transition from guidance to counseling in the 1950s. Before the '50s, there was a tendency for "counseling" to be considered as asimple interview in guidance and as psychotherapy. When it began to be recognized that the necessity to distinguish counseling from interviews in guidance and psychotherapy, Wrenn, the chair of the Division of Counseling Psychology, called the Northwestern Conference in terms of "counseling psychology" in 1951. It was the first time in this conference, for the terms "counseling psychology" and "counseling psychologist" to be adopted officially in this field. Due to the appearance of "counseling psychology", counseling could be introduced as a core function or central field in education rather than peripheral function as the part of guidance. Thus, we have to consider the Conference as the turning point of the shift: from guidance focusing on solving problems to counseling which aims primarily to help human development. One of the origins of counseling as education can be found in his "personnel work" at university. Related to "personnel work", Wrenn insisted on the necessity of the conceptualization of "counseling" and of clarification of the theoretical foundations underlying counseling theory before the '50s. Counseling was not seen as a marginal work for personnel work. Wrenn recognized counseling as the core function related closely to learning. Personnel work became to be the grounds for which an educational technique was combined with an educational philosophy; it provides the critical base to develop counseling theories. This paper concludes by the suggestion that Wrenn's idea of personnel work has the significant meaning for the introduction of school counseling in Japan.

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In a liberal democratic society, there are two fundamental educational requirements in public education. That is, one is respecting individual rights of freedom of conscience and religion in public education. Another is the reproduction of a liberal democratic society. But apparently there is a tension between the two requirements. Because citizens in a liberal democracy often find religious citizens who claim that they are not always tolerant to others' religious views, and in a name of freedom of religion, their claim should be resoected as a toleration of the intolerant as far as possible. The purpose of this paper is to clarify basic concepts in which the two requirements in public education are compatible. At first, I analyzed two legal cases in the United States. One case was Wisconsin. v. Yoder, and the other case was Mozert v. Hawkins County. I suggested that these two legal cases brought up important questions in relation to the two requirements in public education. In the Yoder case, I suggested that Justice Douglas's dissenting in part was important because of his opinion on the importance of children's rights. In the Mozert case, I clarified the importance of its idea of "civil tolerance" through the analysis of Chief Judge Lively's opinion. Secondly, I analyzed a symposium on "Citizenship. Democracy, and Education" in Ethics(1995). I clarified the contrasting views of civic education in relation to the two requirements in public education through the analysis of the arguments of William, A. Galston and Aym Gutmann. But both of their arguments leave something much to be desired to be compatible for the two requirements in public education. I think that the argument suggested by Stephen Macedo was the most important and systematic in this symposium. Macedo suggests the compelling teaching of civil toleranceto all children is justified in the point of view from a guaranteed equal liberty for all. Furthermore, he pays attention to "political liberalism" which is advocated by John Rawls where I clarified that the compelling teaching of civil tolerance to all children can't be justified by simple guaranteed equal liberty for all, through the analysis of Rawls's thought of "toleration of the intolerance" in political liberalism. Third, I analyzed the educational implications of Rawls's "political liberalism" which were not explicated by Macedo. Rawls suggests the need to distinguish between "public identity" and "nonpublic identity" in pluralistic society. I suggested that this idea is very important to be compatible for the two requirements in public education because this idea was a key concept in justifying the teaching of civil tolerance compelled to all children, and at the same time, protecting their owns right of freedom of religion. Moreover, I consider the implications of this idea, which explicates the significance of traditional public educational system in the United States from a perspedive of the argument of educational institutions.

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