Recently, large-scale open spaces for recreational purpose have been constructed on suburban hills, covered mostly with artificially maintained secondary forests. These secondary forests such as Pinus densiftora forests and Quercus serrata forests had been maintained as coppice under the agricultural land management system. However, recent change in land use purpose from agriculture to recreation has brought the needs to establish the new management system of these forests with eco-engineering background. For this reason ecological vegetation management system is keenly requested. Both bio-physical and artificial characteristics supporting these secondary forests are to be equally evaluated for the methodological establishment of adequate vegetation management. This paper aims at overviewing the trends and problems inherent in the previous and recent studies on vegetation management from the view point of landscape architecture.

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The purposes of this study are 1) to define a dominant temperature factor which governs tree planting distributions and 2) on the basis of the factor, to prepare a tree planting zone map for landscaping for the southern part of Japan. The results are as follows.
(1) A limmiting factor in the north: It was found that the dominant temperature factor which limits tree planting distributions northerly in the southern part of Japan was different from that in the northern part of Japan, Hokkaido. That is, in Hokkaido, the distributions are dominantly limited by average annual minimum temperature rather than “Index of Warmth” due to the sharp fall in the former as compared with the latter. In the southern part of Japan, however, “Index of Warmth” which indicates the degree of warmth during the growing seasons, is the dominant limiting factor in the north.
(2) A limiting factor in the south:“Index of Warmth” was found to be the most dominant factor limiting tree planting distributions in the south among the three possible factors compared; average annual minimum temperature, “Index of Warmth” and August average maximum temperature.
(3) According to the above facts, a tree planting zone map for the southern part of Japan was prepared on the basis of “Index of Warmth, ” a common factor dominantly governing both northern and southern limits of the distributions. A total of 318 tree species were assigned according to the zones in which they will normally grow.
*Calculated by suming the normal monthly mean temperatures minus 5°C of all months with a mean temperature above 5°C.

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Environmental conservation strategy and countermeasures have been established in various countries since the beginning of the 1970's when serious environmental pollution became the urgent international problem to be solved. After that, the importance of creating sound environment with high quality of amenity has been significantly recognized for the conservation of integrated living environment. In the process of conserving and creating sound environment, Japanese landscape scientists, architects and planners play a major part. They are requested to establish the creative environment oriented by the conservation of open space, which should be keenly considered not only in Japan but also in other countries.

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Agriculture was once the guardian of the countryside. The modernisation of British agriculture, however, has impacted on the appearance of the land and on the wildlife. The conflict between agriculture and conservation has become a hot public issue since the late 1960s. This paper discusses the background and the content of the conflict and describes recent efforts to coordinate the farm interest and the conservation interest.
The Wildlife and Countryside Act of 1981 clarified the defficulties for such coordination and mitigation efforts. The Countryside Commission has started a new grant-in-aid programme for farmers and landowners to encourage conservation-oriented actions on farms. For the local government and other organisations, countryside advisor system is provided. How these programmes will contribute to the enhancement of the countryside should be answered in the years to come.

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Historic landscapes constitute a distinct category of protected areas, which present a particular interest from an historical point of view. In this day and age, when so many landscapes throughout the world are undergoing radical changes over a short period of time, the conservation and/or restoration of important historic landscapes emerge as a pressing need.
The restoration of an historic landscape is not, as a rule, an easy task. One of the main difficulties involved in this work is related to the degree of historical accuracy it is possible to attain. The effort must be confined to a restoration on broad lines, a re-establishment of the general appearance and main features of the landscape during its historically important period.
Another difficulty encountered in restoring historic landscapes is due to the often multiple function of these areas. The restoration of a landscape of this type should rely upon a careful assessment of the various land uses, with an aim to reconciling the often conflicting cultural and practical aspects of the role the area plays in the contemporary scene.
An historic landscapes, like any other landscape, does not stand independently: it is aesthetically, ecologically and funtionally connected with the surroundings to form a broader organic entity. The first crucial step is to establish the spatial boundaries of the area to be restored.
It seems pretty obvious that, wherever an historic landscape is regarded not as an independent museum-type area, but as part of a broader physical environment, its restoration should be contemplated within the framework of comprehensive planning. Comprehensive planning is the only way to regulate relationships between the historic and the other parts of a large physical environment and to secure conditions ensuring the effectiveness of both the restoration and the subsequent conservation of the historic landscapes.

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Relations between man and nature began with man as an integral part of the animal kingdom one to three million years ago. Gradually developing stone and fire technology, he emerged as a decision-making creature, able to change the landscapes in which he lived. By 10, 000 years ago Neolithic villages were comparable to Third World villages today.
Man was not alone. The other half fo the human race was-and is-woman. Together they became people.
The invention of money and the development of trade were the beginnings of the world economic system in which we live today. As a human invention, subject to its own demands which generate constant change, economics has always tended to conflict with the organic stability of natural systems. This is now major and world-wide.
Design, as the process which determines the forms which will result from change induced by man, is and always has been a universal human process. However the goals and results of most design, disciplined by economic demands, are a far cry from the potentialities, and occasional products, of conscious quality-oriented design, often called professional.
Over several thousand years of conscious quality-oriented architectural-landscape design various contrasting approaches have developed: classical/Renaissance and Romantic/Oriental, formal and informal, mechanical and organic, influenced by the varying world visions of the hard and soft sciences and the clientele.
The man-nature relation is expressed most clearly in confrontations and interactions between architecture and landscape. The design impulse which seeks strong new forms in the environment, originating in shelter and agriculture, progressed through architecture into landscape forms and indoor-outdoor relations.
Buildings and their surroundings often became one problem rather than two or more. Continuity in space and time imposed demands for the repetition of historic forms. These in turn produced fixed systems which became irrelevant to current problems, and generated design revolts. The movements from Old World to New strengthened the search for better environments. Now we begin to settle down in the One World which Wendell Wilkie foresaw.
If people are developing more cooperative and harmonious ways to live with nature, what are the implications for environmental design?

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Landscape Architects, with their particularly close links to the natural sciences, are well aware of the needs of natural organisms, especially of those of all varieties of plants. Only if a tree has strong roots and a sturdy trunk can we expect it to show healthy growth, to come into flower, and eventually to bear fruit, thus guaranteeing the existence of the species, and starting over again that age-old and ageless cycle of rejuvenation.
This truth also applies to other “organisms”, to all forms of organisations, and also to our own profession, to Landscape Architecture.
Only if we are aware of our own professional heritage, can we, with validity, assert our present standpoint, and make a conscientious decision on our future direction.
In Germany, the last few years have brought an intense discussion in the society at large over the conflict between economy and ecology.
Within the profession, a similar discussion is taking place over the question of whether there is an insurmountable conflict between traditional ‘garden art’ and the ecological needs of a heavily industrialized nation, with all it's environmental problems.
A truly up-to-date form of garden and landscape design and planning can only be achieved, if we succeed in taking our knowledge about the endangered natural environment and transforming it into an artistic form of expression.

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Not only acquiring the systematic observation and it's background but also training the self-susterance as a professional man in the social and practical field is regarded as of major importance in U. S. landscape professional education.
Therefore, the division of landscape study, the diversity of landscape calicurun and the establishment of landscape license are in close connection with the practical field.
On that point, Japanese landscape architecture is inclined to theoretical point. It is due to the difference of natural and social environment arround the landscape architecture.

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According to the increasing of social interest in the living environment, the role of landscape designers who realize the creative environment through their works becomes more important. In this paper, history of the development of ideas on creative environment in Japanese landscape architects, various viewpoints requested for the creative environment and the method the creation of environment through investigation of onymous works. It was concluded that the priority should be given to the education of the forthcoming landsdape designers.

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More than ten years have passed since “landscape architecture” was introduced to Korea in a field of science, when the Department of Landscape Architecture was established in Seoul National University and others in 1973. At the same time, landscape architectural works gained recognition as a professional filed.
This paper contains 3 sections;
1. The development process in landscape architecture since the 1970's.
2. Its educational process in recent years, (for example, curreut curricula of the Department of Landscape Architecture in Seoul National University).
3. The present condition of landscape architecture in Korea.

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Last year, I got a chance to attend at the “Annual Meeting ASLA, 1986” in San Fransisco. Some presentations at this meeting and the new movements of landscape design in San Francisco and Los Angeles were mentioned in this paper. The design concept of urban plaza was discussed relating to the stream which is the traditional design technique of Japan.

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