SOCIO-ECONOMIC HISTORY

The role off farm laborers has received little attention from economic historians studying the United States. Scholars have concentrated on slavery in the South and the family farm in the North, and on industrial laborers in the factory. When farm laborers were mentioned, they were simply described as workers on the first rung of the agricultural ladder, who would soon climb to be farm operators. It is therefore the purpose of this paper to throw light on this neglected element in the agricultural history of the nineteenth century. We will focus on the farm laborers on a family farm in New York, and examine their conditions of employment, the nature of their work, the level of their wages, and the methods by which they were paid. The records of manuscript censuses will also be consulted. It will be shown that hamily farms depended on farm laborers to a considerable degree and that such workers therefore had an essential role to play in rural society.

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The purpose of this paper is to analyze the development of the apparel industry in post-war Japan. Previous studies have emphasized how unique customary practices in the transactions between wholeselers and retailers contributed to the development of the industry. This paper proposes a broader historical view, which argues that the apparel industry experienced three different phases in the post-war period. In the first phase (the 1950s), there was little progress in apparel production because the procurement of textiles was such an important factor in deciding the degree of competitiveness between apparel companies. In the second phase (the 1960s), products were rapidly improved and ready-made apparel became available in various sizes and designs. In this phase, department stores and specialist shops provided different types of product and were drawn into fierce competition. In the third phase (from the 1970s onwards), apparel companies began to develop sophisticated strategies in the management of retail outlets and the pricing of products. This new phase occurred along side a general rise in income levels and the appearance of a range of designs. Consumers developed diverse tastes that fluctuated in unpredictable ways. This paper identifies the third phase as consumer society and treats it as a typical socio-economic phenomenon of our time.

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While existing studies focus on orders for buildings and regard the 1920s as a prosperous time for housing policy in Germany, this article conccerns housing constructors. The article asks if the building industry shared a common understanding of 'public welfare' and focusses on the Bauhutten, a group who called themselves 'public welfare' constructors. 'Bauhutte Solongen' is given as an example of a successful Bauhutte company. Since their statutes stressed the element of 'public welfare', the Bauhutten often received aid from public organizations. However, other private sector construction companies questioned the 'public welfare' nature of their activities and forced them to eliminate the articles mentioning this from their statutes. One factor in this situation was the lack of a settled definition for 'public welfare', as is clear from the fact that it was not mentioned in any nationwide regulations at that time. Even so, the Bauhutten continued to construct houses in order to remove the housing shortage. In conclusion, the example of Germany in the 1920s is significant because private sector building companies were able to participate in public welfare house construction even though there was no clear definition of 'public welfare'.

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Although attention is often drawn to provincial grain shortages suffered by the military and official purchases of rice in the Song dynasty, there was no direct relationship between official purchases and the levels of grain stockpiles. In fact, official purchases of grain were carried out every year even though there were large stockpiles, and the Song government's policy was to maintain stocks of grain sufficient for two or three years. It is therefore difficult to explain the official purchase of grain under the Song dynasty simply as 'a means of securing military provisions'. In this paper, the keywords of 'supplementation' and 'stockpile' are used to analyze and compare the role and function of official purchases of grain with regard to the finances of the Tang (618〜907), Song, and Ming (1368〜1644) dynasties. As a result it becomes clear that in the Song dynasty official purchases were important as 'a means of retaining stockpiles' as much as - or even more than - as 'a means of securing military provisions'. The financial background to the system of official grain purchases is also examined.

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