From July to November, 1959, the author made a field investigation in Iran, Afghanistan, and Pakistan as a member of the Kyoto University Scientific Expedition. On the basis of that investigation, this manuscript gives an outline concerning Iranian agriculture. The climate of Iran is arid, outside the districts along the shore of the Caspian Sea, so it is unsuitable for agriculture. Excepting for petroleum, other mineral resources have not been exploited to the fullest extent in this country; moreover, no industrial development can be seen, except some government-managed factories. Agriculture, therefore, forms the basis of the country's national economy: 80 per cent of the Iranian population (19, 500, 000) are peasants, and about a fifth of them are nomads. This country lags far behind other countries in socio-economic growths, which can also be seen in her agriculture. Although most of the peasants of this country are under the management of a few powerful landlords, the agricultural production still remains at a very low stage. In recent years, a new plan to construct farming villages has been made by the Iranian government, which will provide for the extension of irrigation facilities, the improvement of agricultural technique, and reforms of the farm-land system. As this is a country where the feudal system is still retained with tenacity, the author feels that he must call attention to what these results will be.

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Geographers as well as historians seem not to have yet perfectly discussed about cattle pasturage in Japan. On the contrary, they have fairly perfectly discussed about Kaito (i.e. inside of the fence). I wish to find out the missing links by studying cattle pasturage of mountain villages. I have found that such key words as stubble grazing, infield and outfield, open-field system and Flurzwang could be helpful for analizing the mountain villages where pasturage prevails. Generally speaking, cattle are palisaded in the mountain pasture in Japan. The Weilers or lockere Haufendorf, where instead of their enclosing cattle, fields and houses are palisaded to prevent cattle from damaging houses and vegetables, can nowadays be found in isolated mountain regions in Japan. There are two traditional kinds of stockade. One is a stockade which palisades a house and the attached field, and the other is that which palisades the whole lockere Haufendorf, and this may be called a larger palisade. Inside of a larger palisades is called Kakiuchi (inside of a fence). Outside of it is called Kakisoto (outside of a fence). In Chugoku mountain district, Kakiuchi, where cultivation is dominant but stubble grazing is managed, could be assumed to be infield. Kakisoto, where pasturage is dominant but cultivation, though on a small scale, is managed, could be assumed to be outfield. The alternation of cultivation and pasturage was seen not only in infield but also in outfield. So far as the alternation of cultivation and pasturage is concerned, the Makihata system in the Oki Islands is to be remembered. The Makihata system is apt to be regarded as an exceptional case that accidentally happened to exist in Japan.
I wish to claim that the Makihata system has not happened accidentally by pointing out systematically various cases of the alternation of cultivation and pasturage not only in infield but also in outfield.
The type of fences could be classified in four groups, such as A, AB, B, C. The alternation of pasturage and cultivation in outfield could be classified in I, II, III.
The alternation of pasturage and cultivation in infield could be classified in α, β. The above-mentioned three types are combined to make ABIα. BIIIβ, …… and so on.
The succession of the alternation will be such as follows, (1) A→ABIIα-C or (2) A→ABIIα→ABIIIα-C In these cases ABII or ABIII were climaxes.
In the case of (1), ABII could be pointed out in Torikamimura; and in the case of (2), ABIII, in the Oki Islands.
Fairly flat, fertile and isolated islands which were compelled to be selfsufficient in cereals came to manage the Makihata system. In fact, in many regions, irregular alternation of cultivation and pasturage in outfield succeeded to forest cattle grazing.
A theory attained by studying fenced lockere Haufendorf in remote cattle pasturage regions could be helpful to studying Jori system and ancient history of Jori-prevailing region.

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The center of the Koto plain, dealt with here, can be reached within 40-90 minutes by train from metropolitan such as Osaka, (population, over 2 millions) and Kyoto (population, over 1.2 million). In this district, the regional structure formed as a local center has been gradually weakened by the growth of these metropolises. In the region the author, for the purpose of study, and to get a better understanding of the present regional structure, tried to investigate the regional structure of towns of the Meiji era (1867-1912) before it was influenced by urbanization.
The following results were obtained:
1) The regional structure formed by towns had kept a comparatively good balance down to the appearance of railways in 1889.
2) The structure was formed by the towns having a hierarchy of three types, these towns were united by the functions of retail sale service, the commercial dealings of farm products, etc. Hachiman, Hino, Yokaichi and Echigawa, belong to the highest class; they had formed four zones of life which had been completed.
3) Structures were changed by the appearance of the railroads, and then various functions had a tendency to disperse, also, even in the farming villages. During the Meiji era, however, the regional order formed by the towns maintained its original condition. It was not until after World War I that these regions were influenced by great towns.

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